cover page

title page

JAIN VIDYA PART-3

Acharya Mahashraman

© Jain Vishva Bharati, ladnun

https://books.jvbharati.org

Transliteration Key

Transliteration Key

अ (a)

आ (ā)

इ (i)

ई (ī)

उ (u)

ऊ (ū)

ऋ (ṛ)

ए (e)

ऐ (ai)

ओ (o)

औ (au)

अं (ṃ)

अः (ḥ)

क (k)

ख (kh)

ग (g)

घ (gh)

ङ (ṅ)

च (c)

छ (ch)

ज (j)

झ (jh)

ञ (ñ)

ट (ṭ)

ठ (ṭh)

ड (ḍ)

ढ (ḍh)

ण (ṇ)

त (t)

थ (th)

द (d)

ध (dh)

न (n)

प (p)

फ (ph)

ब (b)

भ (bh)

म (m)

य (y)

र (r)

ल (l)

व (v)

श (ś)

ष (ṣ)

स (s)

ह (h)

♦

Index

Index

1. Why is Jain Dharma Great?

2. Terāpantha Philosophy

3. Terāpantha and Idol Worship

4. Jain Dharma and Nocturnal Dining (Rātribhojana)

5. Intoxication / Addiction: Problem and Emancipation

6. Why the Prohibition of Non-Vegetarian Food?

7. Daily Routine of a Śrāvaka

8. Tīrthaṅkara Mallinātha

9. Tīrthaṅkara Ariṣṭanemi

10. Influential Ācāryas of the Golden Era

11. Ācārya Bhāramaljī

12. Ācārya Rāyacandjī

13. Ācārya Jītamaljī

14. Twenty-Five Categories (Pacīs Bola: 15–25)

Why is Jain Dharma Great?

01

Why is Jain Dharma Great?

In order to comprehend the philosophical perspective of Jain Dharma, its conceptions and convictions regarding life, its civilization and culture—and to examine how close the philosophical vision of Jain Dharma stands in relation to contemporary scientific inquiry—a reflective contemplation arose in the light of a singular question: Why is Jain Dharma great?

The answer was received: It is that which inspired all human beings toward the practice of ahiṃsā (non-violence). Where universal truth found acceptance. Where dharma was never tethered to sectarianism. Where, in comparison to the Jain sect, Jainatva (the essence of Jain values) remained preeminent. Where no differentiation was made on the basis of geographical territory or religious attire. Where, from the standpoint of spiritual practice (sādhanā), there existed no discrimination between male and female, caste and community, high and low, fair-complexioned and dark-complexioned. Where principles, thoughts, and conduct were ever influenced by eternity—how could it be an astonishment that such a dharma is great? Then it was asked—How is all this so?

The answer was received:

ādarśo'tra jinendra āptapuruṣaḥ ratnatrayārādhanā,

syādvādaḥ samayaḥ samanvayamayaḥ sṛṣṭirmatā śāśvatī|

kartṛtvaṃ sukhaduḥkhayoḥ svanihitaṃ dhrauvyaṃ vyayotpattimat,

ekā mānavajātirityupagamo'sau jainadharmo mahān||

English Translation:

Where the Jinendra alone is venerated as the ideal Āptapuruṣa (the perfected, passionless being); where the adoration of the Ratnatraya (Samyagdarśana, Samyagjñāna, Samyakcāritra) is practiced; whose doctrine of Syādvāda (Anekāntavāda) establishes universal synthesis; which regards the cosmos as eternal; where the agency of happiness and suffering is recognized in the individual self (and not in any specific God); where the defining characteristic of existing reality is admitted to be originatedness, decay, and permanence (utpāda, vyaya, dhrauvya); and which believes in the fundamental unity of humankind—(by virtue of all these extraordinary hallmarks,) this Jain Dharma is truly great.

1. The Ideal: The Vītarāga Puruṣa (The Passionless Being)

Jain Dharma is a scientific dharma. The foundational aphorism of its scientific methodology is: 'appaṇā sacca mesejjā'—seek truth by oneself. This is self-evident testimony to the greatness of Jain Dharma. According to Jain philosophy, truth is not attained by a human being through some ineffable supreme entity. Rather, one discovers and attains truth through one's own rigorous sādhanā (spiritual striving). In Jain Dharma, such accomplished beings are designated as Sarvajña (omniscient), Jiṇa, Jineśvara, Arhat, and so forth. They are liberated from attachment and aversion (rāga-dveṣa), and are endowed with vītarāgatā (passionlessness) and kevalajñāna (omniscience). Such Jineśvara Bhagavān is accepted as the ultimate ideal in Jain Dharma, and they serve as its supreme guides. Because of possessing their pathfinding guidance, this Jain Dharma is great.

2. Adoration of the Ratnatraya (The Three Jewels)

The primary objective of religious adoration is nirvāṇa. That is a state wherein all dualities—such as pleasure and pain, gain and loss, censure and praise, birth and death—come to an absolute end. For the attainment of that nirvāṇa, Jain Dharma provided a distinctive aphorism: the adoration of the Ratnatraya (the Three Jewels)—namely, the adoration of samyagjñāna (right knowledge), samyagdarśana (right faith/vision), and samyakcāritra (right conduct). As stated: samyagdarśana-jñāna-cāritrāṇi mokṣamārgaḥ—Right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct collectively constitute the path to liberation (mokṣa). By their right adoration, every soul (jīva) can become liberated; it can transform from ātmā into paramātmā. By extinguishing karmas, it can attain its supreme status, the state of mokṣa.

However, in this regard, many philosophers maintained the opinion that jñānayoga alone is necessary for liberation; whereas others contended that bhaktiyoga (devotion) or karmayoga (action) alone is paramount. In resolving this, Jain Dharma expounded that a person first comprehends through knowledge (jñāna), develops conviction and faith in what is known through vision (darśana), and puts it into actual practice through conduct (cāritra). Where these three become one-sided or isolated, how could the attainment of the state of mokṣa be possible? Without the harmonious synthesis of these three, the path of liberation cannot be paved. Therefore, the union of these three is indispensable. Where these three converge, the individual attains authentic knowledge, and certitude regarding the soul (ātmā) is realized. There, a relative and non-dogmatic perspective is formulated for the comprehension of truth, and there the person embraces an conduct of equanimity, liberated from the agitation of rāga (attachment) and dveṣa (aversion). The right adoration of this Ratnatraya is a magnificent sādhanā from the standpoint of spirituality. This is an aphorism that mirrors the greatness and supremacy of Jain Dharma.

3. Syādvāda (Anekāntavāda) as the Basis of Synthesis

A magnificent doctrine of Jain Dharma that establishes synthesis is Syādvāda (Anekāntavāda, the doctrine of non-absolutism/manifold aspects). This distinctive doctrine is a unique contribution of Jain Dharma to the religious, philosophical, and intellectual domain. Why is Jain Dharma great? This is one of its most profound corollaries. Through Syādvāda, Jain Dharma accepted with profound magnanimity that the perspective of another philosophy also holds truth. What a liberal standpoint! As many philosophies, sects, and thoughts as exist, they all contain truth; they are not wholly false. They turn into falsehood only when they become absolutist (nirapekṣa). When they are understood relatively (sāpekṣa), all are true. The acceptance of the veracity of all viewpoints is a monumental philosophical principle, and it is a doctrine that establishes the distinct identity of Jain Dharma.

4. The Eternity of the Cosmos (Sṛṣṭi kī Śāśvatatā)

By upholding the eternity of the cosmos, Jain Dharma not only refuted the concept of divine creation (īśvara-kartṛtva) before the world, but also illuminated the paramount importance of the soul's own agency (ātma-kartṛtva) in its stead. On the foundation of this principle, Jain philosophy expounded the supremacy of truth across the entire universe. It declared: A person perfected in meditation (dhyāna-siddha) perceives the universe through inner intuition, while an intellectual person perceives it through logical inquiry. Contemporary Jain philosophy represents the fruitful culmination of the expositions of both. This is a vital reason why its greatness continues to resonate.

When was this world created? In resolving this question, Jain philosophy stated: This universe has neither beginning nor end; it is beginningless and endless (anādi-ananta). Its initial point cannot be determined, precisely because the fundamental entities that were present in this cosmos formerly are the exact same today, and shall remain the exact same in the future. In both jīva (sentient soul) and ajīva (insentient matter), not a single substance, not even a single atom (aṇu), takes fresh birth or suffers absolute destruction. What was, remains, and shall forever remain. All the substances that existed in the past exist in the present, and will continue to persist equally across infinite future time. They neither diminish nor increase. Therefore, the initial beginning point of when this universe was made cannot be discovered. This is the doctrine of the eternity of the universe; it establishes its beginningless transformation (anādi pariṇamana).

Then it was asked—How was this universe made?

Jīva and ajīva—these are the two primordial substances (tattva). Their combination continually occurs, and that conjunction has formed this cosmic manifestation. The question arises: How is milk produced? The cow consumed grass, and milk was formed. Whatever evolution exists in the cosmos is entirely compound (yaugika); it is the conjunction of these two basic substances—jīva and ajīva.

5. Happiness and Suffering are Self-Created (Sukha-Duḥkha Svakṛta)

In Jain Dharma, an aphorism has been expounded: 'appā kattā vikattā ya'—the soul itself is the creator and enjoyer/sufferer of its happiness and misery. It alone brings an end to happiness and suffering, and it alone brings about happiness and suffering. No external force can bestow happiness or sorrow upon the soul; an external entity can at most serve as a mere instrumental cause (nimitta). Happiness and sorrow are simply the fruits of karmas performed by the soul itself. When this conviction becomes deep-rooted, an individual accords supreme significance to self-effort (puruṣārtha) with elevated morale, pacifies and stabilizes the mind, and confronts adverse circumstances with profound fortitude. This not only serves as a guiding maxim for individual personality development, but also reflects the inherent greatness of Jain Dharma.

6. The Triad: Origin, Cessation, and Permanence (Tripadī—Utpāda, Vyaya, Dhrauvya)

Jain Dharma is a dharma dedicated to the search for truth and its exposition. The search for truth signifies the discovery of laws. A scientist first discovers laws and subsequently acts on the basis of those discovered laws. Jain philosophy presented its contemplation by discovering cosmic laws. It declared: In this universe there are two primordial substances—jīva and ajīva. These are endowed with the triad (tripadī). Origin (utpāda), cessation (vyaya), and permanence (dhrauvya) constitute the defining characteristics of their existence. This is the universal principle governing every entity in the cosmos. From the infinitesimal atom (paramāṇu) to the soul (ātmā), every single substance (dravya) is subsumed within it.

That which is enduring (dhruva) is also eternal (śāśvata), and yet its ever-new modes (paryāya) continuously originate and perish. That is, the sequence of origin and cessation persists unabated. For example, curds (yogurt) are formed from milk. Here, the destruction of milk took place, and a new mode in the form of curds originated. If we examine this through an illustration, the constancy of milk-essence (gorasa) across both states can be comprehended as permanence (dhrauvya). In precisely this manner, the principle governing substances like paramāṇu, ātmā, ākāśa, etc., should be understood. Several philosophers link this with divine agency, viewing it under the lens of creation, dissolution, and God. This knowledge of the triad (tripadī) is indicative of a unique perspective of Jain philosophy for understanding reality. This principle proves the greatness of Jain Dharma.

7. The Unity of Humankind (Mānava Jāti kī Ekatā)

'ekkā māṇusa jāī'—humanity is one single species. By propounding this aphorism, Jain Dharma not only vehemently opposed casteism, slavery, and allied evils, but simultaneously conferred upon womanhood an equal status with men in the spiritual realm. To establish this two and a half millennia ago stands as an emblem of the extraordinary moral strength of Bhagavān Mahāvīra. If we turn to history, nowhere is it found that prior to Mahāvīra any other religious tradition initiated women into asceticism. It is a historical first that Bhagavān Mahāvīra granted initiation (dīkṣā) to women and organized them into an orderly monastic community. Mahātmā Buddha also initiated women and created a community of nuns (bhikṣuṇīs), but only much later and with immense hesitation. When the occasion of Gautamī arose, Ānanda pleaded: 'Bhadanta! Please initiate Gautamī.' Buddha declined, saying it would not be proper. Upon persistent entreaty, Buddha consented, but cautioned: 'Ānanda! The lifespan of my dharma will be curtailed by five hundred years'—that is, Buddhism would falter.

Bhagavān Mahāvīra established absolute equality and concurrently maintained flawless institutional organization. Throughout the two-and-a-half-thousand-year history since then, thousands upon thousands of bhikṣuṇīs flourished within his saṅgha, yet his religious order never faltered. Why is Jain Dharma great? This stands as a momentous testament to it.

Jain Dharma considered casteism to be unessential (atāttvika) and rejected caste determined by birth. In the era of Bhagavān Mahāvīra, casteism enjoyed philosophical sanction within the Brahmanical tradition, holding that caste is determined at birth. Birth-based casteism was rampant. A person was regarded as superior or inferior purely on the basis of caste. A person was designated touchable or untouchable on the basis of caste. The varṇa system was prevalent, which categorized society into four varṇas. Placing those four varṇas in perspective, Mahāvīra proclaimed that one is a Brāhmaṇa by karma (action/conduct), a Kṣatriya by karma, a Vaiśya by karma, and a Śūdra by karma. Caste is rooted in karma (conduct), not in birth. No one is high or low on the basis of birth.

Bhagavān Mahāvīra initiated even a Cāṇḍāla (outcaste). In Jain Dharma, people of all castes were initiated—Kṣatriyas, Brāhmaṇas, Vaiśyas, and Śūdras alike. Cāṇḍālas were also initiated. Following initiation, there was complete equanimity toward all, without any discrimination or difference, embodying unified oneness. Indeed, on the occasion of the outcaste Muni Harikeśa, it was declared:

Behold with your own eyes! This is the distinction of austerity (tapasya), the distinction of ethical conduct (ācāra), the distinction of moral character (caritra), the distinction of virtuous qualities (guṇa)—there is no intrinsic distinction of birth or caste. Look how all the Brāhmaṇa youths and sages are prostrating in reverence before the sage Harikeśa, the son of a Cāṇḍāla! Such is its profound impact and significance. Mahāvīra unconditionally rejected untouchability. He declared: No human being is intrinsically untouchable or despicable. He struck such a trenchant blow against contempt that he pronounced: One who harbors contempt binds mohanīya karma (deluding karma) and attains utter delusion. This is a distinctive philosophical vision of Jain Dharma, a remarkable outlook.

Conclusion (Upasaṃhāra)

Why is Jain Dharma great? This is the glorious answer: endowed with all these sublime characteristics, this Jain Dharma is great. Therefore, it cannot be appraised merely through numbers, nor can it be evaluated in the quantitative language of mathematics. It is a potent, vital dharma. Its principles are beneficent for humanity. It has left an indelible imprint upon the contemporary human consciousness.

Sugar dissolves into milk; the independent appearance of sugar ceases to be visible, yet the entire milk is transformed by the sugar, and sweetness permeates throughout. Whether Jain Dharma is visibly recognized as distinct or not, the contemplative thought of Jain Dharma has influenced the thought of the era so deeply that today, whether one analyzes Jain philosophy or elucidates modern global thought, there is such proximity and affinity between the two that they do not appear as two disparate points, but merge into one. Therefore, this Jain Dharma is truly great.

♦

Terāpantha Philosophy

02

Terāpantha Philosophy

Ācārya Bhikṣu was endowed with innate, extraordinary genius. He undertook an exhaustive study of the Āgamas until they were fully assimilated into his heart. The exposition he rendered of ahiṃsā (non-violence), dāna (charity/giving), and dayā (compassion) in the light of the Āgamas revealed the subtlest depths of truth. Hence, that thought can be weighed on the scale of eternity. Ācārya Bhikṣu unlocked the inner essence of dharma. He proclaimed: Where there is ātma-śuddhi (self-purification), there alone is dharma. And where dharma exists, there alone lies the pure nature of ahiṃsā, dāna, and dayā.

Dayā (Compassion)

Dayā—pāpācaraṇādātmarakṣādayā—protecting the soul from sinful conduct is authentic compassion (dayā).

His proclamation is: There is no dharma in hiṃsā (violence), even if it be deemed unavoidable or necessary. It can certainly never be designated as ahiṃsā or dayā. Slaying smaller creatures for the sake of larger animals is not meritorious (puṇya). The law of the fish (mātsya-nyāya) prevails in the world: the large fish swallows the small fish, just as larger beasts consume smaller creatures. Consuming is natural in the mundane order, but to designate such an act as dharma is not the work of enlightened wisdom. He further declared: Not only the one who directly commits violence, but also the one who serves, protects, nourishes, and sustains perpetrators of violence cannot remain free from the blemish of violence. For instance, between the person who bears a gun and the person who assists him, no distinction is visible from the perspective of ahiṃsā. A person who serves a band of dacoits, carries their baggage, stands guard while they loot, or tends to their wounds when they are injured, is as responsible for that robbery as the dacoit himself. From this perspective, Ācārya Bhikṣu asserts: Those beings who have not renounced the slaughter of the six classes of living beings (ṣaḍ jīvanikāya), who remain engaged in violence, are themselves weapons against other living beings. To serve them and nourish them is not dharma; it is merely sharpening the weapon. His principle on this is exceptionally lucid.

The Parables of Ācārya Bhikṣu

1. Sādhus were residing in the shop of a merchant (seṭha). It was around midnight. Deep silence prevailed. In the motionless atmosphere, a quiet calm enveloped everything. Thieves arrived, entered the merchant's shop, and broke open the lock. As they picked up the bags of money and began to turn away, a voice shattered the silence: 'Brother! Who are you?' Before they had any opportunity to speak or act, three monks stood before them. The thieves saw that they were sādhus; their fear dissolved, and they replied: 'Mahārāja! We are thieves.' They possessed the conviction that no harm would come to them from the monks; hence they stated plainly: 'Mahārāja! We are thieves.' The monks said: 'Brother, you commit such a terrible act; this is not right.

The monks sat down, and the thieves sat down as well. A dialogue ensued between them. The monks elucidated the grave evil of theft, while the thieves narrated their helpless circumstances. Substantial time elapsed, and dawn broke. Ultimately, the discourse took root in the thieves; a transformation occurred in their hearts. Regarding theft as the cause of spiritual degradation, they resolved to abandon it. They undertook the vow never to steal. Now they were no longer thieves; therefore, no fear remained in them. As light spread, people began moving about. The merchant, while taking a walk, passed by his shop. Seeing the broken locks and open doors, he stood dumbfounded. He rushed inside and saw thieves sitting on one side of the shop conversing with the monks, with the bags of money lying beside them. Hope rekindled in the merchant. As he prepared to speak, the thieves said: 'Seṭhajī! Your wealth is safe, do not worry. Had these monks not been here today, you too would have been reduced almost to a mendicant. It is the power of the Muni's sermon that we have been saved forever from this vice, and alongside, your wealth too has been saved.' The merchant was overjoyed.

Securing his wealth and offering gratitude to the Muni, he returned home. This is the first parable—that of the thieves. In this event, two things transpired:

First, upon hearing the monk's sermon, the thieves abandoned stealing. In this, the souls of the thieves were saved from the sin of theft. Second, along with that, the merchant's wealth was also saved.

Now consider: What is ahiṃsā here? Is it that the souls of the thieves were saved from the sin of theft, or that the merchant's wealth was saved?

2. Butchers were driving goats along the road. On the path, they encountered sādhus. The foremost monk addressed the butchers: 'Brothers! Death is not dear to these goats either, as you well know. They suffer distress and agony, are you aware of this? Well, leave that aside! By slaughtering them, your own soul will become defiled—who else will reap the consequences of this?' Hearing the sermon of the Muni, the butchers' hearts underwent a transformation. At that very instant, they renounced the slaughter of goats and took a lifelong vow (pratyākhyāna) against committing gross violence toward innocent mobile living beings (trasa jīvas). The butchers became practitioners of ahiṃsā, having renounced gross violence.

This is the second parable—that of the butchers. In this event as well, two results ensued from the monk's sermon: First, the butchers were saved from violence. Second, alongside them, the goats were saved from death. Now consider: What constitutes ahiṃsā? Is it that the butchers were saved from violence, or that the goats were saved? The thieves were saved from the sin of theft, and the butchers from violence—here their self-purification was accomplished. Therefore, this is undeniably ahiṃsā. Ahiṃsā materialized through the renunciation of stealing and slaughtering. However, alongside these two, two other events occurred: wealth was saved, and the goats were spared. If these external outcomes are also equated with ahiṃsā or dayā, one must carefully examine the third parable.

3. It was midnight. In a shop in the midst of the market, three monks were engaged in svādhyāya (scriptural study). By chance, three men passed that way. The monks observed them and inquired: 'Brothers! Who are you? Where are you going at this hour of the night?' This question struck them with apprehension. They felt internally abashed and tried to see who had addressed them. Seeing that they were monks, they wondered: Should we speak truth or falsehood? Ultimately they reflected: It is wrong to utter a lie before monks. It is embarrassing to confess, but remaining silent is also improper, as it amounts to disrespecting them. Thinking thus, they confessed: 'Mahārāja! What shall we say? We are helpless victims of habit. We are sinful souls heading toward a prostitute.' The monk said: 'You appear to be decent people and speak the truth; yet you commit such an ignoble (anārya) deed? This does not befit you. Indulging in sensual pleasures will never extinguish your lust. Fire is never extinguished by oblations of clarified butter (ghī).' The monk's admonition penetrated their hearts, and they instantly renounced (undertook pratyākhyāna of) that wretched vice. The prostitute waited for them for a long time. When they did not arrive, she set out in search of them and reached that place. She implored the young men to accompany her, but they refused. Agitated and desperate, she cried: 'Come with me, or I shall jump into a well and commit suicide!' The youths responded: 'We shall never again embrace the deed we have forsaken.' Witnessing their resolute indifference, she leaped into a well and ended her life. This is the third parable—that of the libertines. Two things occurred here as well: First, through the monk's sermon, the depravity of the libertines was abandoned. Second, on account of their refusal, that prostitute leaped into a well and died. Now ascend to the logical summit: If one considers the preservation of wealth in the case of renouncing theft to be ahiṃsā for the thieves, and the saving of the goats in the case of renouncing slaughter to be ahiṃsā for the butchers, then one would also be forced to admit that due to the death of the prostitute in the context of renouncing debauchery, the sin of violence accrued to those three men!

Therefore, the preservation of living beings may be regarded as an incidental result (pariṇāma) of ahiṃsā, but never its ultimate motive (prayojana). The waters of a river fertilize the soil, but one cannot say that the river flows with that deliberate intention. In summary, where there is ahiṃsā, there is dayā and dharma; and where there is hiṃsā, there is sin (pāpa).

Dāna (Charity / Giving)

Dāna—giving charity to a worthy recipient (supātra) is restrained charity (saṃyamī dāna).

Dāna is a widely recognized term in Indian literature. Thousands and hundreds of thousands of pages of Indian texts are filled with disquisitions on dāna. Ācārya Bhikṣu appended further profound insights to this chapter. He analyzed dāna from the twin standpoints of liberation (mokṣa) and the mundane world (saṃsāra). His considered verdict is that those who regard every form of charity as dharma have failed to comprehend the true methodology of dharma. They are conflating the toxic sap of the Calotropis plant (āka) with cow's milk! The path to mokṣa is self-restraint (saṃyama). To give charity to an unrestrained person (asaṃyamī) and proclaim it to be the path of mokṣa is an outright contradiction. People do not donate unless dāna is presented as dharma; hence, it is quite likely that charity was indiscriminately labeled as dharma.

The essence of Ācārya Bhikṣu's entire exposition on charity is crystallized in these words: That which is offered to a restrained ascetic (saṃyamī) is dāna that constitutes the path to mokṣa; and that which is given to an unrestrained person (asaṃyamī) is dāna that belongs to the path of the mundane world (saṃsāra). Giving to a restrained being diminishes saṃsāra, whereas giving to an unrestrained being prolongs saṃsāra.

Defining the restrained and unrestrained, Ācārya Bhikṣu stated: One who is entirely non-violent is saṃyamī; and one who does not observe ahiṃsā in thought, word, and deed, through commission (kṛta), causation (kārita), and approval (anumati), is asaṃyamī.

From the standpoint of recipient-worthiness (pātra), an unrestrained person is not entitled to mokṣa-dāna. One who observes only partial vows (a saṃyamāsaṃyamī / layperson) is likewise not entitled to mokṣa-dāna. Therefore, in the definitive language of conclusion: The pure form of dāna is that wherein the recipient (pātra), the donor (dātā), and the alms/food (āhāra) are all three completely pure; and where even one of these three is impure, that dāna is distinct from the path of mokṣa and belongs to the worldly path (saṃsāra).

A monk belonging to the Dādūpanthī sect came to listen to Ācārya Bhikṣu's discourse. He was exceedingly pleased with the sermon and began visiting frequently. One day he requested Ācārya Bhikṣu: 'Please instruct your lay disciples (śrāvakas) to feed me bread (roṭī).' Bhikṣu replied: 'Whether we instruct the śrāvakas to feed you bread, or we give you our own bread—what difference is there between the two?' The monk then asked: 'Do you then prohibit dāna?' Ācārya Bhikṣu remarked: 'Whether one forbids a donor from giving, or snatches something away from someone—what difference is there between the two?'

People allege that Ācārya Bhikṣu prohibited dāna. Ācārya Bhikṣu's firm stance is that there is no difference between prohibiting charity and forcibly snatching it away. His words are: While the donor is giving and the recipient is receiving, if a monk were to obstruct them, an obstacle (antarāya) is caused to the receiver; therefore, a monk cannot do so. At that moment, a monk should neither praise nor prohibit worldly charity to the unrestrained, but must maintain silence. In the context of philosophical discourse on dharma, however, he must elucidate the authentic, unadulterated nature of dāna.

Even so, some argued: To not regard charity as dharma is synonymous with its prohibition. Ācārya Bhikṣu resolved this by stating: If someone tells a donor 'Do not give', that person is indeed prohibiting dāna. But to classify an act of charity precisely according to its proper category is not prohibition; it is the clarity and purity of knowledge (jñāna kī nirmalatā). The Lord did not designate charity to an unrestrained person as dharma; this does not mean that the Lord prohibited charity. It simply means that whatever was the intrinsic nature of a thing, he elucidated it exactly as such.

A person once told a monk: 'Do not come to my house for alms (bhikṣā).' Another person abused the monk with insults. The monk does not go for alms to the house of the person who prohibited him; but he does go for alms to the house of the person who abused him. The reason is that prohibiting and uttering harsh words cannot be accommodated within the same linguistic category. In the exact same manner, prohibiting the giving of charity and expounding charity as non-dharma (mundane) are two entirely different linguistic propositions. They cannot be subsumed within one and the same definition.

Laukika (Mundane) and Lokottara (Transcendent)

Ācārya Bhikṣu's perspective was: If the very same action that perpetuates the mundane world and causes karmic bondage were also to yield spiritual liberation, what need would there be to distinguish between bondage (bandha) and liberation (mukti)? Therefore, he maintained that both have their own respective significance in their proper domains. In one, social duty (kartavya) is predominant; in the other, spirituality (adhyātma) is paramount. One is worldly/mundane (laukika), and the other is transcendent/supramundane (lokottara). Where the discernment between restraint and unrestraint is not central, but mere worldly empathy (karuṇā) is primary, that is laukika; and where compassion is vivified and guided by spiritual restraint, that is lokottara.

Rescuing someone falling into a physical well is a worldly benefaction (laukika upakāra); rescuing someone falling into the well of sin is a transcendent benefaction (lokottara upakāra). Enriching an impoverished person with wealth and grains to make him happy is a worldly benefaction; delivering a spiritual discourse to pacify a person scorching in the fires of insatiable craving (tṛṣṇā) is a transcendent benefaction.

Here, in the former, society and moral duty are primary—that is laukika upakāra. In the latter, restraint and spirituality are primary—that is lokottara upakāra. Ācārya Bhikṣu proclaimed: One is worldly benefaction, which perpetuates the cycle of the world; the other is spiritual benefaction, which brings an end to worldly transmigration, culminating in mokṣa. Whoever considers these two to be identical possesses false vision (mithyādṛṣṭi), and whoever discerns them as distinct possesses right vision (samyagdṛṣṭi).

Purity of Means and Ends (Sādhya-Sādhana Śuddhi)

The means (sādhana) is the seed and the end (sādhya) is the tree; therefore, the exact relationship that exists between the seed and the tree exists between the means and the end.

The end of the spiritual domain is the intrinsic purity of the soul, and its means is likewise the very same. The impurity of the soul can never serve as the means to spiritual purity. The means of the first moment becomes the end of the second moment, which in turn becomes the means for the subsequent stage. That which is the end of the preceding moment is the means for the succeeding moment. Purity alone is the end, and purity alone is the means.

The doctrinal formulation given by Ācārya Bhikṣu to the unity of ends and means is unprecedented prior to him. The expression that pure ends demand equally pure means found an articulation in his words that was unmatched before his time. Today, the principle of the purity of ends and means has descended even into contemporary political philosophy.

Two centuries ago, Ācārya Bhikṣu declared: The means to a pure end cannot be impure, and the end of a pure means cannot be impure. Mokṣa is the end, and its means is saṃyama (restraint). Mokṣa can be attained through saṃyama alone. Those individuals who perform austerities for the sake of sweetmeats (laḍḍūs) are never truly religious; and those who feed sweetmeats to people performing austerities with such worldly motives are likewise not religious.

Means that are not noble end up destroying the end itself—an illustration of this was presented by Ācārya Bhikṣu: The worship of Deva, Guru, and Dharma is the religious person's end. The means of worship is ahiṃsā. But a person who seeks to worship them through violence wanders astray from the path of true adoration. One who seeks to practice dharma through violence is a mithyādṛṣṭi (one of perverted faith). A samyagdṛṣṭi is one who never resorts to violence for the sake of dharma.

A yellow silk garment soaked in blood cannot be cleansed with blood. In the same manner, violence can never be purged by violence. In contemporary politics, two primary ideologies exist: communist and non-communist. Elevating the standard of living of the masses is the goal of both, yet their methods are radically divergent.

The communist ideology maintains: Scrutiny of the purity of means is not essential for the fulfillment of the goal. If the objective is good, then even evil means ought to be employed if necessary to achieve it. A little harm is incurred at first, but greater good follows later. The non-communist ideology maintains: The means possesses just as much significance as the goal itself. The goal must not be attained by hook or by crook, but exclusively through righteous means.

During Ācārya Bhikṣu's time, too, there existed a belief that disregarded the purity of means. Its proponents argued: For the sake of a higher religious purpose, one may take recourse to violence; a small amount of violence occurs initially, but immense dharma is generated subsequently.

Ācārya Bhikṣu refused to validate this. He declared: Whether dharma or pāpa will accrue in the future does not make the present action good or bad. The true touchstone of an action is the present moment alone.

For one in whose heart the sentiment of compassion has arisen, the means of compassion is spiritual instruction (upadeśa); and for one in whom compassion is to be awakened, the means of compassion is transformation of heart (hṛdaya-parivartana). For the spiritualist (ātmavādī), the end is mokṣa—the total, unhindered realization of the soul. Its means are samyagdarśana, samyagjñāna, and samyakcāritra. Transforming an ignorant person into a knower and an unrestrained person into a restrained practitioner is in perfect harmony with the end.

This is the congruence of means and ends. Incongruity arises only when either the end or the means becomes non-spiritual (anātmika).

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Terāpantha and Idol Worship

03

Terāpantha and Idol Worship

Within the Jain tradition, two primary ideological streams have persisted. One stream endorses idol worship or material worship (mūrtipūjā / dravyāpūjā), whereas the second stream places its faith in internal spiritual worship (bhāvapūjā). Among the four major sects of Jainism, one is Terāpantha. In this present chapter, the convictions of Terāpantha concerning idol worship are expounded through a question-and-answer format. This interrogative exposition represents the essence of Param Pūjya Ācāryaśrī Tulasī's work 'Terāpantha aura Mūrtipūjā'.

Question 1:

Question 1: Since Terāpantha does not have faith in idol worship or material worship (dravyāpūjā), do you not accept the idol or statue (pratimā) at all?

Answer: No, we are not idol worshippers. But this does not mean that we do not acknowledge an idol as an idol. When a gentleman asked Ācārya Bhikṣu: 'Do you not believe in the idol?' Ācārya Bhikṣu replied: 'Refusing to acknowledge an idol as an idol leads to mithyātva (falsehood). We regard a golden idol as made of gold, and a silver idol as made of silver. In this manner, whichever metal or material an idol is made of, we recognize it as an idol of that very metal.' That gentleman then asked: 'I have heard that you do not regard an idol as Bhagavān (God)?' Ācārya Bhikṣu said: 'Whatever you have heard is correct. But on what grounds could we accept an idol as Bhagavān? It possesses neither consciousness (caitanya), nor knowledge (jñāna), nor perception (darśana), nor conduct (cāritra). If someone insists on calling an idol devoid of jñāna, darśana, cāritra, and caitanya as God, we can at most designate it as sthāpanā-bhagavān (installed/representational God).'

Question 2: What is this 'sthāpanā-bhagavān'? What is the difference between this and the real Bhagavān?

Answer:Answer: In order to comprehend the true nature of any person or entity, the Āgamas employ the methodology of nikṣepa (analytical perspectives). As many meanings of a word as can be known, that many nikṣepas are possible. Where numerous nikṣepas are not known, the Āgamas prescribe that at least four nikṣepas must be applied. These four nikṣepas are: nāma (name), sthāpanā (representation/installation), dravya (substance/potentiality), and bhāva (actual state/essence). These can be readily understood through the following verse:

nāma jinā jina nāmā, ṭhavaṇā jinā honti paḍimāo |

dravva jinā jina jīvā, bhāva jinā samavasaraṇaṭṭhā ||

English Translation:

Nāma-jina: Any person who has been assigned the name 'Jina' is a Nāma-jina.

Sthāpanā-jina: An image or statue shaped in the form of a Jina is a Sthāpanā-jina.

Dravya-jina: A soul destined to become a Jina in the future, as long as it has not yet attained that state, is a Dravya-jina.

Bhāva-jina: The Tīrthaṅkara Bhagavān in whom Kevalajñāna has manifested and who is seated in the Samavasaraṇa is the Bhāva-jina.

In the same manner, illustrations of Arhat, Mahāvīra, etc., are to be understood. When evaluated from the standpoint of worshipfulness versus non-worshipfulness, among these four nikṣepas, only the Bhāva-jina is real, authentic, and worthy of veneration and adoration. The remaining three are Jina merely by nominal designation (nāma), representation (sthāpanā), or future potentiality (dravya), but not by virtue of actualized divine attributes. Therefore, only those who are endowed with the qualities of a Jina and are presently a Jina are truly worshipful.

Question 3:If you prohibit the worship of idols (dravyāpūjā), why then do you accept an idol as an object of concentration (ālambana)?

Answer: Answer: Performing ritual worship is one thing, and accepting something as an ālambana (support for concentration) is entirely another. What obstacle is there in regarding an idol as a support for concentration? An ālambana or nimitta (instrumental cause) can be anything, but that does not mean it becomes worthy of religious worship (pūjya). What was the catalyst for the detachment of King Nami (Nami Rājarṣi)? He received enlightenment from the sound of the queens' bangles. Does that alone make the bangles worshipful? Samudrapāla attained renunciation upon witnessing the beating of a thief. Did he worship the thief? If merely serving as an ālambana confers the entitlement to worship, why were the bangles and the thief not worshipped? There is no correlation between serving as an ālambana and being an object of worship. The one entitled to worship is endowed with virtues such as jñāna, darśana, and cāritra. As far as the idol is concerned, it is associated with temples. Temples are the cultural heritage of any nation. They possess immense significance from the perspectives of architecture and archaeology, but how can that alone render them objects of religious worship?

Question 4:In your discourses, you frequently mention: 'I visited such-and-such temple, sang hymns of praise to the Tīrthaṅkaras, meditated, chanted mantras, etc.' When you yourself visit temples, why do you not inspire your lay followers to go there?

Answer: During our foot journeys (vihāra), we halt at numerous places. In this sequence, we stay in various religious premises such as upāśrayas, sthānakas, assembly halls, churches, monasteries, temples, and akhāḍās. Wherever we stay, we regularly perform discourses, devotional singing, scriptural study, and meditation. Whether it is a public place like a school, rest-house (dharmaśālā), or traveler's lodge, a private residence of a householder, or a sacred site, religious practice takes place at our residence. Since our faith is anchored in bhāvapūjā (internal spiritual adoration), bhāvapūjā can be performed sitting in any location. Occasionally, circumstances lead us to stay in religious places like upāśrayas and temples, and sometimes we visit them for inspection. But we have no connection with ritualistic idol worship or consecration ceremonies (pūjā-pratiṣṭhā).

Question 5: We understand that Terāpanthī people do not believe in idol worship or material worship. Yet we observe that Terāpanthī śrāvakas, on occasions such as weddings, births, deaths, and lifecycle rites (jāta-jhaḍūlā), worship and perform āratī for folk deities like Mātājī, Bālājī, Bhairuñjī, Pitarjī, and offer sāraṇī (sweets). Why then do they not worship the idols of transcendent divine beings—the Tīrthaṅkaras?

Answer: The propitiation of worldly deities (laukika devas) is carried out from a purely worldly standpoint. It has no connection whatsoever with mokṣa, dharma, or spirituality. A layperson engages in such social rites for mundane objectives—such as seeking offspring, acquiring wealth, achieving success in business, or warding off mundane obstacles. This is nothing new. In ancient times as well, references exist of twelve-vow-observing śrāvakas propitiating mundane beings such as Nāgas, Bhūtas, and Yakṣas. But this was treated as an exemption (āgāra) or worldly exception. It was a mundane act, not an act of dharma or spirituality. On the other hand, as far as the worship of Jina idols in Jina temples is concerned, the goal is proclaimed to be spiritual. In such a scenario, how can a comparison be drawn between the spiritual and the mundane?

Question 6: Terāpanthī people do not believe in idol worship. Yet they place portraits of Tīrthaṅkaras and Ācāryas in their homes and undertake pilgrimages to certain holy sites. By doing so, are they not leaning toward idol worship?

Answer: The Āgama-sanctioned tradition established by Ācārya Bhikṣu through prolonged austerity and rigorous research will not be compromised by us at any cost; this is our unshakeable resolve. For we have attained this path of guṇapūjā (worship of virtues), bhāvapūjā (spiritual worship), and formless worship (nirākāra pūjā) with great effort. Now, as far as the portraits or photographs of Tīrthaṅkaras and Ācāryas are concerned: Terāpanthī people keep pictures or photos in their homes, shops, and offices. From cultural and historical standpoints, they hold significance. But no one worships them, nor is such worship permitted.

In Terāpantha, pilgrimage for the sake of ritual idol worship does not exist anywhere. Only its primary historical sites are recognized as places of veneration. Five major sites are associated with Ācārya Bhikṣu: Kaṇṭāliyā, Rājasamand, Bāgaḍī, Kelwā, and Siriyārī. These places have historical significance. Thousands of people visit them annually, particularly Siriyārī. There they perform spiritual practices such as meditation and japa. Generally, the prescribed method of spiritual practice there is as follows:

• As soon as one arrives before the entrance of the Samādhi Sthala, recite the verse 'Vighnaharaṇa maṅgala karaṇa' three times in unison.

• Upon approaching the Samādhi Sthala, devoutly remember and eulogize Ācārya Bhikṣu.

• With total absorption, chant or meditate upon the mantra: 'Oṃ Bhikṣu—Jaya Bhikṣu'.

• Ācārya Bhikṣu did not believe in idol worship. Remain vigilant so that his Samādhi Sthala does not take on the character of idol worship.

• Distributing prasāda, offering flowers, coconuts, etc., at the Samādhi Sthala is not sanctioned.

In keeping portraits or photos and visiting historical sites, there is no occasion for idol worship. Hence, the assertion of leaning toward idol worship is entirely unfounded.

Question 7: Ācāryajī! So far as principle or tradition is concerned, your explanation seems sound. But householders have domestic, social, and commercial relationships. To maintain sweetness in relations, it becomes necessary to cooperate in one another's undertakings. In this context, what is your view?

Answer: Whether relationships are domestic, social, or commercial, they each have their proper place. How can there be any justification for compromising one's religious convictions in the name of relationships? Cooperating with one another in social endeavors is one thing. But if one is not vigilant regarding one's convictions in religious matters, what meaning remains to difference in conviction? Terāpanthī śrāvakas construct Terāpantha Bhavans in their localities without seeking financial assistance from others. Yet in the case of temples, people often become lenient. This can exert an undesirable influence on the values of the coming generation. In this context, I present an example from Madras (Chennai): Two individuals were business partners in Madras. One partner was a staunch idol worshipper, and the other was a staunch Terāpanthī. Each adhered to his own religious faith, and between them there was complete harmony. One day, the idol-worshipping partner said: 'Brother! I wish to build a temple.'

Terāpanthī: 'As you wish.'

Idol-worshipper: 'What will be your cooperation in this?'

Terāpanthī: 'I shall continue to tend to my work.'

Idol-worshipper: 'I am speaking of financial cooperation.'

Terāpanthī: 'I will not contribute even a single paisa of financial cooperation.'

Idol-worshipper: 'What are you saying? I am your friend, your companion, your business partner. Will you not cooperate with me?'

Terāpanthī: 'In the capacity of a friend, companion, and partner, my full cooperation will be with you in your social endeavors. If you build a school, a hospital, or a guest house, I am prepared to contribute half the funds. But a temple is connected with religious faith. Your faith is in temples; you may build a temple. My faith is not in temples. I harbor no ill-will toward temples, but I am resolute in my own conviction. Remain steadfast in your faith, and allow me to remain steadfast in mine.' The idol-worshipping friend was deeply impressed by the straightforwardness of his partner, and no rift ever arose in their business or personal conduct. This is one illustration; there can be many such examples.

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Jain Dharma and Nocturnal Dining (Rātribhojana)

04

Jain Dharma and Nocturnal Dining (Rātribhojana)

In the Jain Āgamas, various stages of spiritual practice are described for householders (śrāvakas), just as they are for monks. In the Daśāśrutaskandha Sūtra, the eleven pratimās (spiritual standards) of a śrāvaka are expounded. There, in the fifth pratimā, alongside other vows, the total renunciation of nocturnal dining (rātribhojana-tyāga) is prescribed. Refraining from eating at night became virtually mandatory for every Jain during the medieval era. It became the hallmark of Jain identity. The renunciation of nocturnal dining is a distinctive contribution of Bhagavān Mahāvīra.

Why the Prohibition of Nocturnal Dining?

Refraining from eating at night is certainly connected with dharma, as it has been propounded by religion. Alongside this, there is also a scientific reason for this prohibition. The food we consume is digested through the agency of the taijasa śarīra (the bio-thermal body). Our digestive power is taijasa. For it to perform its function, the solar warmth (ātapa) is necessary. When it does not receive the light of the sun, it becomes sluggish, and digestion is weakened. Therefore, one who eats at night cannot escape the affliction of indigestion (dyspepsia). This is the scientific reason.

The second reason is that during the heat and light of the sun, micro-organisms remain relatively inactive. As soon as the sun departs, vitality surges within them, and they all become active. They give rise to diverse diseases. An illness torments far more at night than it does during the day. The disturbance of vāta (wind/gastric humor) is also aggravated at night. All these ailments afflict during the night because warmth is absent. When warmth is present, diseases do not turn aggressive.

Ācārya Hemacandra wrote in the Yogaśāstra: 'astaṅgate divānāthe'—upon the setting of the lord of the day (the sun), the digestive system becomes inactive. The greatest source of energy is the sun. In its presence, the vital system, energy system, and digestive system all remain vibrant. As soon as the sun sets, all these systems begin to languish. Hence, the nighttime is unsuitable for taking meals. The essence (rasa) of consumed food is not properly assimilated; it becomes injurious to health.

By abstaining from eating at night, the possibility of committing violence toward small living creatures and insects is averted, and self-restraint develops effortlessly. In mathematical terms, abstaining from nocturnal meals effortlessly equates to six months of continuous fasting (tapasya) every year. In other traditions as well, nocturnal dining has been eschewed from the perspective of non-violence. Vedic texts such as the Kūrma Purāṇa prohibit eating at night. Mahātmā Gandhi also considered it unwholesome; for fifty years, he strictly avoided taking food after sunset with unshakeable resolve. Restraining nocturnal meals enhances physical strength, intellect, and longevity; so affirm the authorities on human physiology. In the contemporary context, due to the hustle and bustle of city life and irregular routines, the practice of nocturnal dining is escalating. If the safeguarding of Jain culture remains before our eyes, the restraint of nocturnal dining can be embraced with ease.

Didactic Narrative (Kathābodha)

In the city of Campā, Śreyāṃsakumāra, the son of a wealthy merchant (śreṣṭhī), was devoutly religious from his early childhood. That entire merchant family was religious; no one in the household consumed food at night. In the morning, everyone engaged in japa, visiting holy saints, and meditation. Śreyāṃsakumāra had also become accustomed to numerous religious observances from boyhood. He would awaken early, turn the rosary beads, and totally abstain from nocturnal meals. Even as he grew to adulthood, he remained steadfast in his vows.

For commercial purposes, Śreyāṃsa occasionally had to travel to distant lands. He would either make arrangements in the morning or forgo his evening meal entirely, but he never ate at night.

Once, Śreyāṃsa set out for a remote region with several companions for trade. Through diligent effort, he amassed immense wealth. After a journey spanning several years, he was returning toward Campā with his companions. On the route, they encountered a caravan (sārtha) from the Aṅga country comprising three hundred people. The leader of the caravan, Maṇivardhana, warmly invited Śreyāṃsa and his companions to join them. Maṇivardhana had studied alongside Śreyāṃsa's father and was also heading toward Campā.

In accordance with his vow, Śreyāṃsakumāra would eat his meal prior to sunset. Among those taking their evening meal, Śreyāṃsa was invariably the first. Whatever others might say, he remained unshakable in his vow, fully devoted to his resolve.

As they advanced, they entered the dense, rugged jungle of Burma. The chariots and baggage carts of the caravan were dispatched via a longer circuitous route. The remaining travelers began crossing the forest on foot through a stony, thorny, mountainous path. They had walked only a short distance when they lost their way, and wandered aimlessly throughout the entire day. They could not find the correct path. They possessed neither food to eat nor water to drink.

Hungry and thirsty, all the people wandered through the forest until evening, but no village came into view. Everyone was utterly exhausted. Finally, they decided to spend the night on the banks of a river. All drank water from the river and rested. Pitch darkness enveloped everything; they possessed no source of light. As soon as they drank water, intense hunger began to torment everyone. Śreyāṃsakumāra, having renounced nocturnal food, spread his mat on one side and began reciting his rosary. The rest of the people scattered in search of tubers and wild fruits.

It was a dark night and nothing was clearly visible, yet people continued to search. On the riverbank hung the fruits of some unfamiliar trees. Some travelers plucked them and brought them back. The fruits appeared luscious, beautiful, and juicy. The caravan leader called out to all his companions; everyone gathered, but Śreyāṃsakumāra did not come. The caravan leader summoned him and affectionately urged him to satisfy his hunger with the fruit. At this, Śreyāṃsa spoke of his vow of abstaining from food at night. Everyone cited the adage: 'āpattikāle maryādā nāsti' (in times of calamity, rules do not apply) and urged him to abandon his obstinacy. Śreyāṃsa replied unequivocally: 'I have kept no such concession in my vows; hence I will eat nothing.' At this, the caravan leader said: 'Son! You can accept atonement (daṇḍa) later, but you must eat the fruit. If you do not eat, I will not eat either.'

Śreyāṃsa replied with utmost humility: 'Uncle! I cannot eat anything at night, and I would never advise anyone to eat in such an unknown forest at night. Uncle! My counsel to all of you is that you should consume nothing at night. Missing a single meal will cause no harm.' The caravan leader was reluctant, but observing Śreyāṃsa's unshakeable resolve, he too decided to remain hungry.

On the other hand, the people said: 'We shall eat the fruit. When food is available, why should we starve?' Hearing this, Śreyāṃsa said: 'I would urge that you also refrain from eating. I can only advise; whether to heed it lies in your hands.' The people were ravenous and the fruits lay before them. Paying no heed to caution, they began devouring them greedily. Many people broke their vows and ate the wild fruits. Almost everyone ate to their fill. Exhausted as they were, they fell asleep by the riverbank. Those fruits were lethal poison, which no one could detect in the dark. When the poison took effect, they passed away in their sleep without ever waking.

The next morning, the managers, staff, and carts of the caravan arrived in search of them, carrying provisions of food and drink. Maṇivardhana said to them: 'Awaken everyone, the sun is about to rise.' Upon receiving the command, attempts were made to wake the sleeping people.

Alas! What a sight! Not a single person was stirring. All had perished in their sleep. Maṇivardhana was profoundly shocked. Śreyāṃsa, looking at the fruits lying nearby, said: 'Look, Uncle! These fruits appear unfamiliar and poisonous. Look, that is why no wild creatures touch them. These fruits are undoubtedly the cause of their death.'

Word was sent to nearby villages. Upon hearing the news, the villagers arrived. Looking at the fruits, they said: 'Whoever eats these fruits never survives. We are always vigilant regarding them; children are warned about them from infancy, which is why locals avoid them. Had you seen these fruits in the daylight, you would have inferred the poison and been saved. This tragedy occurred solely because they were eaten in the darkness of night.'

The caravan leader Maṇivardhana drew a deep sigh and said: 'Brother! Until now I had only heard that eating at night multiplies diseases; but today I have witnessed directly that eating at night summons death itself.' Finally, with heavy hearts, they performed the last rites of the deceased. Everyone bowed in reverence before Śreyāṃsakumāra's steadfast fidelity to vows. The caravan leader recognized him as his savior, and others embraced the renunciation of nocturnal dining in his presence. When Maṇivardhana reached Campā and narrated the entire episode to the king, the king also extolled Śreyāṃsa's steadfast devotion to vows. He was honored as an exemplary, devout religious citizen of the city.

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Intoxication / Addiction: Problem and Emancipation

05

Intoxication / Addiction: Problem and Emancipation

On the basis of classification, intoxicants/addictions are divided into four categories:

1. Addiction to tobacco

2. Addiction to alcohol (liquor)

3. Addiction to bhāṅg, gāñjā, charas, etc.

4. Addiction to opium, heroin (narcotic drugs), etc.

These are four forms of intoxication. The word naśā belongs to the Urdu language; in Sanskrit and Hindi, the terms unmāda (mania) or pāgalapana (insanity) correspond to it. The distortion, impairment, and loss of conscious awareness constitute the intrinsic nature of intoxication.

Tobacco: A Dreadful Intoxicant

Bīḍī, cigarettes, khainī, guṭkhā, pān parāg, and all such zardā-laced products are various manifestations of tobacco. Tobacco is consumed through chewing, smoking, pressing between the lips, sucking, and sniffing. It is an exceedingly lethal addiction. When global medical doctors and scientists placed before the public the devastating facts regarding these substances, the world was stunned. People became so alarmed that there was no need to explain the matter from a religious perspective. The governments of small and large nations alike enacted legislation making it mandatory to print statutory warnings on every packet of zardā or cigarettes and in advertisements: 'Smoking is injurious to health. It is a major cause of lung cancer.'

Tobacco is heavily responsible for diseases of the mouth, oral cavity, larynx, esophagus, jaw, and respiratory tract. In reality, along with other toxic chemicals, tobacco contains a deadly poison named nicotine. Through bīḍī, cigarettes, and zardā products, nicotine affects brain cells and gradually enslaves the individual. From the physiological standpoint, this substance is profoundly detrimental.

Renunciation of Alcohol Consumption (Madyapāna Varjana)

Bhagavān Mahāvīra regarded alcohol as prohibited, just like non-vegetarian food. Jain Ācāryas enumerated seven heinous vices (sapta kuvyasana), among which alcoholism is prominent. When a person drinks liquor, insanity ensues, mania is produced, and furthermore, such excitements are generated that, losing awareness of right and wrong, he inclines toward diverse crimes. He does not remain untouched by heinous vices such as theft, robbery, gambling, prostitution, and meat-eating. He loses all regard for the modesty, honor, and prestige of his lineage, family, and spiritual preceptors. He commands no respect in society. When drinking for the first time, one may experience a temporary sensation of pleasure or intoxication, but once the addiction takes hold, he suffers such regret that he cannot bear its catastrophic repercussions. In the perpetual craving for alcohol, his tension remains ceaseless. His body becomes feeble, debilitated, and emaciated. Situations of severe tension arise within the family. Quarrels, strife, and disharmony escalate. Wealth begins to deplete. Passions of anger and conflict intensify. Without intoxication, his very life becomes agonizing. Then, willingly or unwillingly, he is compelled to swallow that poison repeatedly. Furthermore, he envisions his remaining breaths only within the cup of wine and the smoke of cigarettes—that is, his life becomes imprisoned in intoxication.

Like Bhagavān Mahāvīra, other great luminaries also prohibited alcohol. Bhagavān Buddha declared: 'O humans! Do not be terrified when facing a lion, for that is the test of valor. Do not be terrified of bending your head before a sword, for that is the touchstone of sacrifice. Leap into the abyss from a mountain peak, for that is the sādhanā of austerity. Do not waver before rising flames, for that is the test of selflessness. But be ever terrified of wine, for it is the mother of sin and depravity.' He further stated: 'In whichever king's realm Surādevī (the goddess of wine) receives honor, that kingdom will perish at the hands of the goddess of death. There, neither medicinal herbs nor food grains will flourish.'

Therefore it has been said: Intoxication renders an individual indifferent toward family and society. It becomes the instrument for destroying one's sense of duty and responsibility. Consequently, a worthless generation is born in society that is good for nothing, remaining perpetually dazed in stupor. Hence, alongside alcohol, one must renounce bhāṅg, gāñjā, charas, and the like. Lethal narcotic substances like heroin (drugs) must also be prohibited. Whether it is a question of health or spirituality, renouncing intoxication becomes the catalyst for building a sublime and meaningful life. In the Guru-dhāraṇā (spiritual pledge before the preceptor) as well, the renunciation of liquor is specifically administered, which serves to safeguard one's samyaktva (right faith).

So that our consciousness remains continuously vigilant, mindful, and un-infatuated (apramatta), alcohol and all intoxicating substances have been prohibited. We must never consume any substance that distorts our cognitive faculties (jñāna-tantu) and inflames the lower passions.

Intoxication: Causes and Remedies

When we investigate the causes of addiction, it becomes evident that:

1. An attraction toward the forbidden exists within humans. Therefore, out of curiosity, inquisitiveness, and the urge to experiment, a person initiates addiction even at an impressionable, tender age.

2. A person's lifestyle and values are heavily influenced by the environment. In early youth, one is influenced even more rapidly. Hence, bad companionship in the neighborhood or among peers, the easy availability of intoxicants, and pervasive advertising inspire an individual toward addiction.

3. The third cause identified is stress. To escape momentarily from mental tensions such as fear and anxiety, a person seeks refuge in intoxication.

Therefore, to stay clear of intoxication, noble company (satsaṅgati) is indispensable. To dispel stress, the practice of meditation (dhyāna) is essential. There is a superficial similarity between intoxication and meditation: both temporarily empty the individual of external tensions and anxieties, inducing a distinct sensation of absorption. But intoxication is evil because its ultimate consequence is catastrophic. After creating a fleeting illusion of pleasure, it plunges life through deprivation, darkness, and despair into the extreme zenith of misery. It compels an individual toward ruin. In contrast, through meditation, a person continually augments joy in life and establishes a positive aura around oneself. Therefore, the authentic alternative to intoxication is meditation. Through this, one attains a joy far superior to the transient pleasure of intoxicants, guiding the direction of life toward righteousness.

Conclusion (Upasaṃhāra)

The problem of addiction existed previously, but it has now grown far more complex. The habit of substance abuse is escalating rapidly among the youth. In the contemporary social fabric, amid the blind race for materialism and Westernization, women too have begun to stand in the ranks of addiction here and there, heightening concern. For the Jain community, it is a subject of earnest reflection today that they should not drift with the current of the era and seek refuge in intoxicants for petty pleasures. One who venerates Bhagavān Mahāvīra, who reposes faith and conviction in his teachings, must never grant alcohol a place in life. One must shun it with vigilant resolve and forever preserve the purity of Jain identity.

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Why the Prohibition of Non-Vegetarian Food?

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Why the Prohibition of Non-Vegetarian Food?

Food is the minimal necessity of human existence. A human can sustain life by consuming grains, and can also live by eating meat. In comparison between grains and meat, non-vegetarian food renders a person far more cruel. To obtain meat, a person must become far more ruthless than is required to harvest grain. Even those who are meat-eaters generally do not visit slaughterhouses. Where animals are butchered, where beasts and birds are slaughtered, they do not go. If they were to go there, it is quite likely that eating meat would become impossible for them. Not every person is so unfeeling as to endure the terminal screams and agonies of thousands of mute creatures. How can one who regards all living beings as equal to oneself, who weighs their joy and sorrow on par with one's own, consume meat? How could such a person eat meat?

George Bernard Shaw used to say: 'I do not eat meat; I abstain from it because my stomach is not a graveyard.' He further observed that, from one perspective, eating meat does not mean merely filling one's stomach, but becoming a living grave for slaughtered animals.

Compassion and Vegetarianism (Karuṇā aura Śākāhāra)

Bhagavān Mahāvīra fiercely opposed non-vegetarianism. Behind that opposition lay no partisan dogma, but an uninterrupted torrent of compassion. Within his heart, compassion flowed for all living beings without exception. He harbored the same love for beasts, birds, and subtle vegetation as he did for human beings. In his love, there was no room to support the slaughter of any living being. What was dear to him was ahiṃsā, and ahiṃsā alone. Yet how could the human world embrace his ideal in its entirety? After all, it was a question of survival. If one is to live, one must eat. Life cannot proceed without nourishment. 'Annave prāṇāḥ'—food is life itself; this conviction had gained universal societal acceptance. The Lord evaluated the problem of food from two distinct perspectives: the standpoint of absolute necessity and the standpoint of deliberate intention (saṅkalpa). The Lord never propounded what was impossible.

Vegetation is the minimal essential necessity of life. Behind this, the perspective of minimizing violence, preserving health, and nurturing pure (sāttvika) values and thoughts is transparently clear.

Meat-eaters consume vegetation, but vegetarians do not consume meat. Non-vegetarian food is not a minimal necessity of life like vegetation. Behind vegetarianism is the inspiration of deliberate resolve. The foundational maxim of the Lord's ahiṃsā is: If you cannot renounce unavoidable violence, you must unconditionally renounce intentional (saṅkalpī) violence. On the basis of this aphorism, the voice prohibiting meat-eating acquired profound significance.

The global vegetarian movement seen today can trace its roots to the Jain tradition. Meat-eating was prevalent across all classes—Brāhmaṇas, Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas, and Śūdras. In Vedic religion, meat-eating was not prohibited. Followers of Buddhism, despite being part of the Śramaṇa tradition, consumed meat. The movement against eating meat was championed exclusively by the Jain tradition, and Mahāvīra was its foremost leader.

Mahāvīra prohibited meat-eating for Nirgrantha ascetics. Vow-observing householders (śrāvakas) likewise did not consume meat. The Lord enumerated four causes that lead to birth in hell (naraka), among which meat-eating is one. This stands as a vivid reflection of Mahāvīra's conviction against meat-eating.

Mahāvīra's anti-meat movement gathered momentum over time. Diverse religious sects and communities were influenced by it and abandoned non-vegetarianism.

No evidence prohibiting meat-eating older than that found in Jain literature is known to exist in any other ancient literature.

Human Nature: Vegetarianism or Meat-Eating?

A major cause for the increase in human cruelty is non-vegetarianism. Meat-eating has undeniably made humans beast-like to some degree, instilling animalistic impulses. Otherwise, humans would not engage in conduct that is appropriate only for beasts, not for civilized human beings.

Man is vegetarian by nature; meat-eating is contrary to his physiology. On the basis of anatomical structure and physiological function, animals are divided into two categories: Herbivores like cows, horses, and elephants are vegetarian animals; carnivores like dogs, cats, and lions are meat-eating animals. The differences between the two in anatomy and physiology include the following:

On the basis of the above classification, the human being can be compared directly to vegetarian animals. Therefore, by nature, humans are not carnivorous. Humans acquired non-vegetarianism through habitual conditioning. What is demanded today is the development of compassion in humanity, not cruelty. Renouncing meat-eating fulfills this noble expectation.

Is the Egg Vegetarian?

1. Frequently the question arises: What is an egg? Is it vegetarian or non-vegetarian?

2. Is it animate (sajīva) or inanimate (nirjīva)?

Nourishment has two primary forms: vegetarian diet (vegetable-origin food such as greens, fruits, grains) and animal-origin diet. Animal-origin diet is further divided into two types: edible animal products (milk, yogurt, etc.) and inedible/unfit animal products (abhakṣya—eggs, meat, etc.).

It is evident that the egg is not vegetarian. It has emerged from the body of an animal; how then could it be vegetarian? It is animal-derived, an embryonic secretion, the precursor to flesh. Therefore, from the standpoint of edible versus inedible, it is wholly inedible, impure, and abhakṣya (unfit for consumption).

Eggs are of two types: fertilized and unfertilized. An egg produced through the mating of a rooster and hen is fertilized, and an egg produced without the union of a rooster is unfertilized. Because it is produced without the union of a rooster, many consider the unfertilized egg to be inanimate (nirjīva).

The opinion of numerous scientists is that whichever egg it may be—fertilized or unfertilized—it is animate (sajīva). An egg is never inanimate. Scientist Philip J. Scambler clearly states in his book that unfertilized eggs also contain life. In his words: 'The egg is extremely delicate. It is highly sensitive to adverse environments. In reality, the production of an egg is meant for producing offspring, not for human diet. There is a natural ventilation mechanism within the egg through which the embryo survives and develops. This applies to unfertilized eggs as well.'

Scientists at the University of Michigan (USA) have demonstrated that no egg in the world is inanimate, whether it is fertilized or unfertilized. In conclusion, the egg is the precursor of flesh; hence it is abhakṣya. For a vegetarian, it is entirely forbidden. From the viewpoints of ahiṃsā, health, and purity, it is utterly undesirable.

Today, to popularize eggs, propaganda is spread urging people to eat eggs for high-quality protein. This is a delusion. In reality, the protein present in pearl millet (bājrā), soybeans, peanuts, and pulses is far superior to that in eggs. While the egg contains protein, it is simultaneously detrimental. Consuming 100 grams of egg means taking two and a half times more cholesterol than required. Eating meat or eggs increases the number of receptors, leading to higher accumulation of cholesterol. Consequently, cholesterol begins depositing on the inner walls of blood vessels, promoting cardiovascular diseases, kidney failure, and stones. Many physicians in America and England have labeled the egg as poison for humans.

Some raise fallacious arguments by categorizing milk and yogurt under meat-eating. They contend that because these originate from an animal's body, they are part of non-vegetarianism. In truth, that body which is endowed with the seven bodily tissues (sapta-dhātu) is alone designated as flesh. Milk and yogurt do not contain the sapta-dhātus; hence they cannot be categorized as meat. From the viewpoints of ahiṃsā, compassion, and nutrition, they are edible (bhakṣya) and acceptable.

Conclusion (Upasaṃhāra)

The vegetarian movement initiated by Jain Dharma exerted a widespread influence. Today it sweeps across the world as a powerful wave. Leading scientists and eminent physicians worldwide have concluded that non-vegetarian food is fatal to humans and gives rise to incurable diseases. In Western nations, the vegetarian movement is gaining momentum. In Great Britain alone, over one million people are now completely vegetarian, and this number is growing astonishingly.

Didactic Narrative (Kathābodha)

King Vimala had a son named Puṣpacūla and a daughter named Puṣpacūlā. Upon reaching suitable age, Puṣpacūlā was married, but due to the untimely death of her husband, she returned to her father's house and lived there.

Despite being a prince, Puṣpacūla was addicted to vices and was exceptionally skilled in the art of theft. Hence he acquired the moniker Baṅkacūla. His sister Puṣpacūlā encouraged him in these deeds, on account of which she came to be called Baṅkacūlā.

The populace grew distressed by Baṅkacūla's reprehensible deeds. A complaint was lodged before King Vimala. The king exiled both brother and sister from the realm. Taking his sister Baṅkacūlā with him, Baṅkacūla reached a tribal settlement (Bhīlapallī). The chieftain of this hamlet had grown aged; he entrusted his entire leadership to Baṅkacūla.

Once, Ācārya Candrayaśa was traveling along with his disciples in the company of a caravan. While the monks went for alms, the caravan moved ahead. The monsoon season (varṣā-ṛtu) was imminent. The Ācārya found himself in a predicament. Searching for suitable shelter, he arrived at the Bhīlapallī and requested lodging from Baṅkacūla. Baṅkacūla granted lodging to the Ācārya on the condition that he would not deliver any religious sermons.

Upon completing the cāturmāsa (four-month retreat), as Ācārya Candrayaśa prepared to depart, he imparted four counsels to inspire Baṅkacūla:

1. Never consume an unfamiliar fruit.

2. Never strike a blow at anyone without first stepping back seven or eight paces.

3. Regard the chief queen (agramahiṣī) of the king as a mother.

4. Never eat the flesh of a crow, even by mistake.

Baṅkacūla resolved to observe these four rules for life. Once, Baṅkacūla set out with his companions to raid a village. But he obtained nothing and returned empty-handed. On the return journey, due to scorching heat, their lips parched, and life seemed trapped in their throats. Beautiful fruits were visible on trees. All his companions ate those fruits. But bound by his vow, Baṅkacūla and one companion refrained. Those were poisonous fruits; those who did not eat survived, while all the rest perished. Baṅkacūla witnessed the fruit of observing vows. Faith arose within him toward the venerable Muni.

Returning home, he saw his wife sleeping with a man. Rage naturally flared within him. He drew his sword from its scabbard. At that precise moment, he remembered the second rule: strike only after stepping back seven or eight paces. As he stepped back seven or eight paces, his sword struck against the doorframe. At the noise, the person sat up and exclaimed: 'Brother! You have arrived, how wonderful!' Upon inquiring, his sister explained: 'After your departure, the king's spies arrived disguised as acrobats. It was because of them that I assumed male attire. Sending them away with gifts took late into the night. Sleep overcame my eyes, so I slept without changing attire.'

Baṅkacūla's faith in the Ācārya deepened immensely. He understood the profound value of adhering to vows.

Once, Baṅkacūla entered the royal palace to commit theft. There, the chief queen became enamored of him. But Baṅkacūla, regarding her as a mother, rejected her amorous advances. The king was observing all this through an aperture. He publicly declared Baṅkacūla as his adopted son. Now Baṅkacūla brought his sister Baṅkacūlā there as well, and lived happily as the king's son.

While wandering from village to village, Ācārya Candrayaśa arrived in Ujjayinī. Baṅkacūla received the twelve vows of a śrāvaka from him. He formed a deep friendship with the śrāvaka Jinadāsa of Śāligrāma. Now he began to observe the śrāvaka-dharma diligently.

Once, King Durdhara of the Kāmarūpa country invaded Ujjayinī. To confront him, by the king's command, Baṅkacūla marched into the battlefield with an army. Highly skilled in warfare, Baṅkacūla defeated King Durdhara. As Baṅkacūla was returning to the sound of victory drums, the enemy shot a poisoned arrow that struck his back. Intense, unbearable agony ensued.

The king employed numerous remedies to heal Baṅkacūla's wound, but all failed. Ultimately, the physicians declared: 'If medicine mixed with the flesh of a crow is administered, Prince Baṅkacūla will certainly recover.'

The moment he heard the name of crow's flesh, Baṅkacūla flatly refused, saying: 'I have renounced crow's flesh. Whether life departs or remains, I will not take crow's flesh under any circumstances.' The king pleaded and persuaded him intensely, but when he remained firm, the king dispatched his attendants to summon the śrāvaka Jinadāsa to convince him. The attendants reached Jinadāsa and conveyed the royal summons.

The śrāvaka Jinadāsa set out. While traveling on the road, he encountered two celestial women weeping. When he asked the reason for their grief, they replied: 'We are celestial goddesses (devīs) of Saudharma Kalpa. Our husband has fallen from heaven. We came to beseech Prince Baṅkacūla to become our lord, but you are going to persuade him to break his vow. Doing so will cause his spiritual downfall into lower realms, because meat-eating is the cause of taking birth in hell (naraka).'

Śrāvaka Jinadāsa determined his sacred duty. He went before the king and said: 'Mahārāja! Baṅkacūla has very little life remaining; hence even if he breaks his vow, he cannot survive. Therefore, allow him to maintain his vow. In one's final moments, religious contemplation (dharmārādhanā) alone is appropriate.' With the king's consent, Jinadāsa guided Baṅkacūla into salle خانā (saṃlekhanā / saṃthārā—peaceful voluntary transition). Baṅkacūla, chanting the Pañca-Parameṣṭhī mantra, attained samādhimaraṇa (peaceful spiritual death).

When śrāvaka Jinadāsa was returning to his village, he met the same two devīs on the way. Upon asking, the goddesses revealed: 'You purified Baṅkacūla's spiritual consciousness so profoundly that he has been reborn in the twelfth heaven (Acyuta Kalpa). He has ascended far beyond our heavenly realm, so he could not become our lord.'

Recognizing the glory of dharma, śrāvaka Jinadāsa rejoiced exceedingly. Such is the sublime power of dharma.

Additional Didactic Narrative (Kathābodha)

In the city of Purimatāla, there ruled a king named Mahābala. A short distance from the city lay a den of thieves (cora-pallī). Situated amid caves and rugged mountains, that place was terrifying. The chieftain of that bandit settlement was the thief Vijaya, leader of five hundred bandits.

He was deeply irreligious: robbing people, looting caravans, and brutally setting villages ablaze were his daily routine. He had a son named Abhaggasena, who surpassed even his father in cruelty. Abhaggasena severely tormented the subjects of Purimatāla. The citizens wept their tale of woe before King Mahābala. The king made numerous attempts to capture Abhaggasena, but all proved futile. Ultimately, the king devised a stratagem.

He proclaimed a ten-day festival in the city and invited Abhaggasena along with his comrades. Seizing the opportunity, the king intoxicated them with alcohol and meat, rendering them unconscious. Thus captured in their stupor, they were paraded through the city and sentenced to impalement on the stake (śūlī).

Just then, Gautama Svāmī, the foremost Gaṇadhara of Bhagavān Mahāvīra, was passing that way for alms. Seeing him led toward the execution ground, his heart was saddened. Approaching Bhagavān Mahāvīra, he asked: 'Bhante! What sins did this thief Abhaggasena commit in his previous births that he is being impaled upon the stake?' The Lord replied: 'Gautama! In his previous birth, he was a merchant named Nihnava in this very city. He was a massive dealer in eggs. Roasting and frying eggs, he consumed them himself and fed them to others. Completing a lifespan of one thousand years, on account of that cruel karma he went to the third hell. Completing his lifespan there, he has taken birth as this thief Abhaggasena. Here too, on account of his reprehensible deeds, the king has inflicted this plight upon him. What is more, today in the third quarter of the day, dying at twenty-seven years of age, he will descend into the first hell. Emerging from there and transmigrating through numerous births, the soul of Abhaggasena will ultimately take birth in the household of a merchant in the city of Vārāṇasī, and observing self-restraint there, will attain mokṣa.'

Did You Know?

• When blood from a person with blood group B cannot even be transfused into a person with blood group A, how can there be any question of consuming animal meat?

• Meat-eating generates unnatural agitation, diminishes tolerance, destroys the elasticity of arteries and body tissues, and drastically curtails lifespan.

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Daily Routine of a Śrāvaka

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Daily Routine of a Śrāvaka

A vital aphorism of dharma is mindfulness (jāgarūkatā). Bhagavān Mahāvīra instructed the ascetic to observe mindfulness and caution (yatanā) in every action: walking, staying, sitting, sleeping, eating, and speaking. While walking, if mindfulness is absent, the blemish of violence is incurred even if no creature is actually killed. Just like an ascetic, so that a śrāvaka too may remain mindful of his daily conduct and routine to protect against the sin of non-restraint (avrata), a beautiful table of nine rules has been presented. In it, a lucid classification has been drawn between inauspicious (apraśasta) and auspicious (praśasta) daily routines:

Daily Routine of a Śrāvaka

That every minor activity of an individual should be guided by the bridle of restraint is a sublime perspective. On this very foundation, restraint was linked with eating, drinking, and daily activities, so that an individual may be liberated from materialistic and hedonistic tendencies and cultivate a healthy life. Along with this, how should a śrāvaka begin his daily routine, and what religious practices should he incorporate into his day? This is an important question. From this perspective, a daily routine has been structured such that merely observing it reveals that the individual is a Jain, Terāpanthī śrāvaka.

Chanting the Namaskāra Mahāmantra

The foremost duty of a śrāvaka's daily routine is the remembrance of the 'Namaskāra Mahāmantra'. In the Jain tradition, this mantra is regarded as extraordinarily potent. If chanted daily with deep faith, even the most intricate riddles of life are resolved. The greatest impediment to the attainment of bliss is ego (ahaṅkāra). The 'Namaskāra Mahāmantra' is the mantra for the dissolution of ego. It teaches humility, enhances spiritual energy, and develops immunity against inner defilements.

When the chanting of the 'Namaskāra Mahāmantra' is paired with prāṇāyāma (breath regulation), it becomes even more efficacious. Prāṇāyāma signifies restraint of breath. Restraint of breath fosters concentration. Mantra chanting performed in a state of concentration leads the practitioner into profound spiritual depths. How could one who merely floats on the surface obtain the priceless pearls accessible only to one who dives into the depths of the ocean?

Sāmāyika (Equanimity Practice)

A principal practice of a śrāvaka's daily routine is sāmāyika. To abide within oneself and cultivate equanimity, sāmāyika is an unfailing spiritual exercise. Without turning extroverted consciousness inward, equanimity cannot descend into life. In sāmāyika, whatever practices are performed—such as japa, meditation, svādhyāya, and anuprekṣā (contemplation)—all draw consciousness inward. If one cultivates the habit of abiding in oneself for even 48 minutes in an entire day, the direction of life can be transformed. And if daily practice is not possible, one must unfailingly perform sāmāyika at least every Saturday from seven to eight o'clock.

Svādhyāya (Scriptural Study)

Svādhyāya is vital nourishment for life. Just as food is necessary for the body, scriptural study is even more essential for intellectual and spiritual growth. Even 15 minutes of regular daily svādhyāya can become the cause of immense spiritual attainment. Through svādhyāya, knowledge-consciousness awakens, concentration sharpens, the capacity to comprehend reality develops, and contemplation gains new dimensions. From this viewpoint, its inclusion in a śrāvaka's daily routine is indispensable.

Guru-Darśana (Visiting the Preceptor)

In the heart of a śrāvaka, the longing for guru-darśana should abide perpetually. The tradition of guru-darśana is no empty ritual. It is the living ideal of renunciation standing before worldly indulgence. A śrāvaka lives a life of worldly pleasures. If he can behold a life of renunciation even once a day, he effortlessly receives the inspiration for detachment. The conviction awakens in him that a life of renunciation can indeed be lived. When visiting the preceptor, looking at the faces of monks and nuns is secondary; the primary essence is establishing contact with an atmosphere of renunciation.

Vandanā-Vidhi (Method of Salutation)

In the Jain tradition, 'pañcāṅga-praṇipāta' (five-limbed prostration) is the prescribed method of salutation. According to this, guru-vandanā is performed by placing five limbs simultaneously on the earth: both hands, both knees, and the forehead. This holds scientific significance. Five-limbed prostration exercises control over the adrenal glands. Regulating the adrenal glands brings mastery over instinctual passions. From this viewpoint, methodical salutation possesses immense value.

In guru-vandanā, there is also a method for touching the feet. The point where the foot touches the head is regarded as a center of bio-energy. It is a fountainhead for receiving energy, but while receiving it, discretion and decorum are essential. Competing all day to touch the feet causes disorder; therefore, one should touch them cautiously, seizing a proper opportunity. There should be no rigid dogmatism in salutation, for whichever method is employed, the greatest importance belongs to bhāva-vandanā (internal spiritual reverent feeling

Parameṣṭhī Vandanā: Arhat Vandanā

In the daily routine of a śrāvaka, 'Parameṣṭhī Vandanā' and 'Arhat Vandanā' occupy a prominent place. Arhat, Siddha, Ācārya, Upādhyāya, and Sādhu—these are designated as the Five Parameṣṭhīs. It is they who are venerated in the 'Namaskāra Mahāmantra'. The abbreviated form of the Namaskāra Mahāmantra is 'A. Si. Ā. U. Sā. Namaḥ'. Its elaborate, poetic manifestation is the 'Parameṣṭhī Vandanā'. In it, the nature of all five positions, beginning with Arhat, is articulated in detail.

'Arhat-Vandanā' is a compilation of selected sublime verses of the Vītarāga's speech. In it, special emphasis is laid on ātma-kartṛtva (agency of the soul). Chanted in the posture of vajrāsana, accompanied by mindful physical gestures (bhāvakriyā) and rhythmic melody, it captivates not only the singer but also the listener effortlessly. It includes a song set to a simple melody so that collective singing can follow the recitation of the aphorisms. Both of the aforementioned vandanās are the original creations of Pūjya Gurudeva Tulasī.

Pākṣika Pratikramaṇa (Fortnightly Repentance)

Another dimension of the śrāvaka's conduct is pākṣika pratikramaṇa (performed every fifteen days). Pratikramaṇa is essentially a process of purification; it may well be described as a spiritual bath of the soul. Through it, all known and unknown transgressions are cleansed, and the individual begins to experience his innate spiritual potency. By performing pratikramaṇa, sinful karmas are eradicated, and alongside the practice of nirjarā dharma, supreme merit (puṇya) is bound. This is a sublime method for rendering life profoundly simple and upright.

Khamātkhāmaṇā (Mutual Forgiveness)

An observance intimately connected with pratikramaṇa is the practice of 'Khamātkhāmaṇā'. According to this practice, following pratikramaṇa and introspection, an arrangement is made for the mutual exchange of forgiveness with all individuals. To restore psychological health to an obstinate or wounded mindset, this is a time-tested, proven spiritual practice.

Rātribhojana-Viramaṇa Vrata (Vow of Renouncing Night Eating)

Those who maintain a religious or cultural viewpoint speak of renouncing nocturnal meals on the foundation of self-restraint and cultural ethos. Those who reflect from a scientific perspective consider nocturnal dining unwholesome for health. That a śrāvaka should abstain from eating at night is spiritually beneficent for him and constitutes a solid step toward the preservation of Jain culture.

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Tīrthaṅkara Mallinātha

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Tīrthaṅkara Mallinātha

Bondage of the Tīrthaṅkara-Gotra Karma

The nineteenth Tīrthaṅkara, Lord Mallinātha, was a wonder in himself. The remaining twenty-three Tīrthaṅkaras assumed male bodies, but Tīrthaṅkara Mallinātha took birth in a female body. Such immense spiritual development and spiritual virility in a female form was an extraordinary marvel in itself.

Lord Malliprabhu had bound these karma-prakṛtis in his previous incarnation. In the Salilāvatī Vijaya, located to the south of the great Sītodā River in West Mahāvideha Kṣetra of Jambu-dvīpa, stood the city of Vītaśokā. The king there was named Bala. Through a lion dream witnessed by his Chief Queen Dhāriṇī, a jewel of a son was born, who was named Mahābala. When Mahābala grew to youth, his parents wedded him to five hundred princesses. After many years, a firstborn son was born to Mahābala from his wife Kamalāśrī, named Balabhadra.

Emperor Bala, becoming detached from worldly entanglements, consecrated Mahābala upon the throne and himself renounced the world, receiving initiation under Ācārya Dharmaghoṣa to engage in ardent sādhanā. King Mahābala governed the realm systematically. Mahābala had six inseparable friends hailing from royal lineages: 1. Acala, 2. Dharaṇa, 3. Pūraṇa, 4. Vasu, 5. Vaiśravaṇa, and 6. Abhicandra. Once, Ācārya Dharmaghoṣa arrived in Vītaśokā. King Mahābala, overwhelmed by detachment, prepared to become an ascetic. His six friends also joined him. All seven received initiation under Muni Dharmaghoṣa.

Following initiation, the seven monks resolved that they would undertake all austerities, vows, and spiritual practices together, so that their fellowship would endure in future births as well. Having made this resolve, all engaged in austerities together.

Once, a thought arose in the mind of Muni Mahābala: 'Presently my status among the seven is preeminent; but with identical austerities and vows, this preeminence will not endure in the future.'

Under the sway of ego, he took a misguided decision that in order to remain distinguished, he ought to perform some extra austerity beyond his companions. With this motive, on days of breaking the fast (pāraṇā), when his fellow monks brought alms for him, he would say: 'You may break your fast; I have renounced food today.' Through such deceitful austerity (chadma-pūrvaka tapa) and the intensity of ego (ahaṃkāra) and deceit (māyā), he bound the woman-gotra karma (strī-gotra). Simultaneously, on account of his extraordinary austerities and profound nirjarā, the bondage of Tīrthaṅkara-nāma-gotra karma also occurred.

All seven monks, including Mahābala, observed the twelve Bhikṣu-pratimās and performed formidable austerities such as Laghu-siṃha-niṣkrīḍita and Mahā-siṃha-niṣkrīḍita. They observed the ascetic discipline for eighty-four lakh years. Finally, completing a lifespan of 84 lakh pūrvas through a four-month terminal fast, they were reborn as magnificent gods endowed with great splendor in the Jayanta Anuttara Vimāna, possessing a lifespan of thirty-two sāgaropamas.

Birth

Exhausting his celestial lifespan, the soul of Muni Mahābala descended into the womb of Queen Prabhāvatī in the royal palace of King Kumbha of Mithilā. The mother witnessed the fourteen auspicious great dreams.

Upon completion of the gestation period, contrary to everyone's expectations, a daughter was born. In those days, celebrations in royal households were held only for the birth of sons; however, the Lords of Gods (Devendras) celebrated the birth of the newborn girl. Thereupon, King Kumbha could not contain his natural surge of joy. Breaking established tradition, he celebrated his daughter's birth on par with the birth festival of a son.

The naming ceremony was organized on a grand scale. King Kumbha announced to all: 'During the pregnancy, the queen experienced a pregnancy longing (dohada) to sleep upon a bed of flowers, which was fulfilled by the gods. Therefore, let the princess be named Mallīkumārī.'

Awakening the Friends (Mitroṃ ko Pratibodha)

As Mallīkumārī gradually entered youth, her beauty blossomed miraculously. The fame of her exquisite beauty spread far and wide. Meanwhile, Mallīkumārī, perceiving through her clairvoyance (avadhijñāna) that her six friends from the previous incarnation had been reborn as kings in neighboring realms, constructed a deceptive chamber (mohana-ghara) in her pleasure garden to awaken them spiritually. In the center of that pavilion, she installed a hollow golden statue fashioned in the exact likeness of her own form. Facing the statue, six private chambers were constructed around it. The inner doors of the chambers opened such that persons standing inside could see only the golden statue and nothing else. That statue was hollow inside, with an opening near the throat. Every day, Mallīkumārī would drop one morsel of her daily food into the throat of the statue.

Meanwhile, through various channels, the fame of Princess Mallī's beauty reached the six kings. Enamored in mind, all six kings dispatched envoys to King Kumbha seeking Princess Mallī's hand in marriage. When King Kumbha refused, the six kings marched toward Mithilā with their armies.

Hearing that six kings had approached Mithilā with their armed forces, King Kumbha became deeply anxious. He felt incapable of battling all six simultaneously. Just then, Princess Mallī arrived to touch her father's feet. She petitioned her anxious father: 'Why contemplate a futile war? I shall resolve this crisis myself; remain at ease.'

Receiving royal consent, Princess Mallī dispatched separate emissaries to all six kings, inviting each for a private meeting in the Aśoka garden. All the kings accepted the invitation, each believing that he alone had been summoned. At the appointed time, the six kings entered separate chambers through different doors. The names of the six kings who entered were:

When the friend kings arrived in the mohana-ghara of the Aśoka garden, they gazed upon the embellished statue, mistaking it for Princess Mallī. While they were gazing enraptured by its form, Princess Mallī appeared and removed the lid atop the statue. The moment the lid was lifted, the stench of putrefied food wafted in every direction. As the foul odor spread, the kings winced, wrinkling their noses and brows, turning their faces away.

Seizing the moment, Princess Mallī addressed them: 'O Kings! When merely a single morsel of food deposited daily generates such putrid rot within this statue, what is this living body but a puppet of food? What is contained within it other than bones, flesh, excrement, and urine? Why then such blind infatuation for it? Cast aside your attachment and recall your sacred bonds of friendship! In our third birth prior to this, we were inseparable companions. My name was Mahābala, and your names were such and such. Come, through ardent sādhanā this time, let all seven of us attain that eternal realm whence there is never any separation.'

Through Princess Mallī's stirring address and the narration of their previous life, recollection of previous births (jāti-smaraṇa-jñāna) awakened within the kings. They beheld their former relationships directly. Instantly detached from worldly life, they proclaimed: 'Bhagavatī! Forgive us; an error was committed by us in ignorance. Now we are dispassionate; grant us permission to destroy all bondage by practicing sādhanā alongside you.'

Ascetic Initiation (Dīkṣā)

Receiving Princess Mallī's consent, the six kings returned to their respective capitals and engaged in preparations for embracing ascetic conduct (cāritra). On the other hand, Princess Mallī also announced her renunciation. After distributing charity for a full year (vārṣīdāna), on the appointed date of Mārgaśīrṣa Śuklā Ekādaśī, Bhagavatī Mallī took initiation along with three hundred women and three hundred men. On the day of initiation, she observed a three-day fast (telā).

The moment she took initiation, she became endowed with manaḥparyavajñāna (telepathic knowledge). Attaining manaḥparyavajñāna, Bhagavatī Mallī became absorbed in meditation accompanied by kāyotsarga (relinquishment of bodily attachment), and during the third quarter of that very same day, ascending the kṣapaka-śreṇī (ladder of annihilation of karmas), she attained omniscience (sarvajñatā / kevalajñāna). In this descending cycle of time (avasarpiṇī), she was the only Tīrthaṅkara to observe the ascetic stage in the un-omniscient (chadmastha) state for the shortest duration. Omniscience on the very day of initiation was attained by her alone. The following day, she broke her fast at the residence of Viśvasena in Mithilā.

Following celestial celebrations, the Devendras erected the divine assembly hall (samavasaraṇa). Bhagavatī Mallī delivered her first sermon. Immediately following the sermon, the spiritual order (tīrtha) was founded. Numerous souls embraced the vows of household life (niketa-dharma) and ascetic homelessness (aniketa-dharma).

Liberation (Nirvāṇa)

After propagating the spiritual order for a prolonged duration, she finally attained Siddhahood on Mount Sammeda Śikhara, eradicating all remaining karmic prakṛtis through a one-month absolute terminal fast (anaśana) accompanied by five hundred noble nuns (āryikās) and five hundred worthy monks.

In the Digambara tradition, Mallinātha is regarded as male, because according to their doctrinal conviction, a woman cannot attain monkhood or liberation (mokṣa).

The Family of the Lord (Prabhu kā Parivāra)

Tīrthaṅkara Ariṣṭanemi

09

Tīrthaṅkara Ariṣṭanemi

In the city of Saurīpura, the leader of the Andhaka-Vṛṣṇi clan, Samudravijaya, reigned. His chief queen was named Śivā. They had four sons: Ariṣṭanemi, Rathanemi, Satyanemi, and Dṛḍhanemi. Ariṣṭanemi became the twenty-second Tīrthaṅkara, while Rathanemi and Satyanemi became Pratyekabuddhas.

Birth

When the soul of Ariṣṭanemi descended into Queen Śivā's womb, Mother Śivā witnessed the fourteen great dreams. Hearing of the dreams, universal joy spread everywhere. Upon completion of the gestation period, at the auspicious midnight hour of Śrāvaṇa Śuklā Pañcamī, the Lord was born. The Devendras celebrated. King Samudravijaya, along with his ten brothers, celebrated the unprecedented birth festival of his son. Joy and enthusiasm filled every heart. On the day of the naming rite, Queen Śivā arrived at the assembly holding the dark-complexioned infant. People beheld the child and offered blessings. In discussion of the name, King Samudravijaya announced: 'Ever since the child entered the womb, the realm has remained safeguarded from all forms of adversity (ariṣṭa). Furthermore, his mother dreamt of a wheel (nemi) made of the black ariṣṭa-jewel; therefore, let the child be named Ariṣṭanemi.' The assembled gathering hailed him by this name.

Marriage

Ariṣṭanemi grew into youth. He harbored no longing for sensual pleasures; he was dispassionate. His father Samudravijaya contemplated devising some initiative whereby Ariṣṭanemi might develop attachment to worldly pleasures and embrace the life of a householder.

Numerous enticements were presented, yet he did not waver from his spiritual resolve. Some time passed. Ultimately, upon the persuasion of Śrī Kṛṣṇa, he consented to marriage.

His marriage was arranged with Rājīmatī, daughter of King Ugrasena of the Bhoja lineage. All preliminary marriage rituals were completed. The wedding day arrived. Rājīmatī was adorned. Prince Ariṣṭanemi, richly adorned, mounted the royal elephant. Auspicious lamps were illuminated; instruments resounded; the bridal procession (vara-yātrā) set out.

Meanwhile, King Ugrasena had made elaborate arrangements. Alongside diverse delicacies, hundreds and thousands of animals had been gathered in enclosures. Prince Nemi's procession passed near the enclosures of those terrified animals. Seeing the frightened beasts, Prince Nemi asked the charioteer: 'Why have these animals been confined?'

The charioteer replied with humility: 'Prince! All these are for your wedding feast. Their meat will be served to the Yādava princes who have accompanied you.'

Prince Nemi's heart surged with overwhelming compassion. He reflected: 'For the sake of my single marriage, the lives of thousands of mute creatures will be plundered! I shall become the instrument of their slaughter! No, this can never be. I shall not marry!' He instructed the charioteer: 'Turn the chariot back toward Dvārikā!' The charioteer turned the chariot. Prince Nemi, with a serene mind, removed all ornaments from his body and handed them to the charioteer.

As Prince Nemi's chariot turned back, the entire arrangement of the wedding procession was disrupted. Kṛṣṇa, Balarāma, and others arrived and pleaded repeatedly. Refusing resolutely, Prince Nemi returned to Dvārikā and commenced the distribution of annual charity (vārṣīdāna).

The Renunciation Procession (Abhiniṣkramaṇa Yātrā)

Everyone was astonished by Lord Nemikumāra's detachment. To abandon a peerless beauty like the maiden Rājīmatī without marrying required immense spiritual strength. Inspired by his detachment, numerous youths instantly declared their renunciation to be initiated alongside Nemikumāra.

On the appointed date of Śrāvaṇa Śuklā Ṣaṣṭhī, seated in the palanquin named Uttarakurū, he proceeded to the Sahasrāmra garden on Mount Ujjayanta (Raivatagiri). In the Lord's renunciation procession, an immense ocean of humanity participated alongside sixty-four Indras and countless celestial deities. In the procession, Sanatkumārendra held the royal parasol over the Lord. Śakrendra and Īśānendra gently waved gleaming fly-whisks, holding svastikas, while Sahasrarendra advanced ahead bearing a divine bow. Prāṇatendra bearing the Śrīvatsa and Acyutendra holding the Nandāvarta rendered the procession auspicious. The remaining Indras, including Camarāsurendra, led their entourages equipped with their celestial insignia.

Reaching the Sahasrāmra garden beneath an Aśoka tree, the Lord discarded his royal garments and ornaments and performed the five-handful plucking of hair (pañca-muṣṭi-loca). Vāsudeva Śrī Kṛṣṇa, being elder in age, blessed the tonsured Nemikumāra, saying: 'O Damīśvara (Lord of Self-Restraint)! May you achieve your goal with utmost speed, and radiate the light of dharma across the universe.'

Nemikumāra received ascetic initiation (pravrajyā) alongside one thousand detached individuals. Vāsudeva Śrī Kṛṣṇa and others, prostrating before him, returned to their palaces. On the day of initiation, the Lord observed a three-day fast (telā). The next day, he broke his fast with rice pudding (pāramānna / khīra) at the residence of the Brāhmaṇa Varadatta. The deities manifested the five divine wonders (pañca-divya). People everywhere came to know that Nemikumāra had broken his fast at Varadatta's abode.

Omniscience (Kevalajñāna)

Following Lord Neminātha's initiation, fifty-four nights were spent in the un-omniscient (chadmastha) stage. Through supreme detachment, remaining absorbed in the soul via various supports of meditation, he accomplished vast karmic destruction (nirjarā). Once again, he ascended Mount Ujjayanta (Raivatagiri). That very night, ascending the kṣapaka-śreṇī, he attained Kevalajñāna.

The deities celebrated and constructed the divine assembly (samavasaraṇa). The citizens of Dvārikā were enraptured upon hearing that the Lord had attained omniscience. All eager people, including Vāsudeva Kṛṣṇa, climbed Mount Raivatagiri to behold the Lord. The venerable Mahāsatī Rājīmatī also arrived there to behold the Lord. In the Lord's first sermon, the spiritual order (tīrtha) was established. Numerous souls aspiring for restraint, such as Varadatta, and numerous detached women, such as Yakṣiṇī, embraced monastic vows. Many monarchs, including Samudravijaya, and queens such as Śivādevī, Devakī, and Rohiṇī, accepted the śrāvaka-dharma. The Lord appointed eleven individuals, headed by Varadatta, as Gaṇadharas, and the nun Yakṣiṇī as the Pravartinī.

Liberation (Nirvāṇa)

For a prolonged duration, the Lord wandered through Dvārikā and numerous other realms endowed with divine glory. He illuminated the path of liberation for hundreds of thousands of souls. At last, on Mount Raivatagiri, alongside five hundred and thirty-six final-bodied souls (carama-śarīrī / destined for mokṣa in this very birth), the Lord undertook a lifelong terminal fast. Through a thirty-day fast, shedding his mortal body, the Lord attained Siddhahood.

Familial Relationship with Śrī Kṛṣṇa

Śrī Kṛṣṇa and Ariṣṭanemi also shared a close familial relationship. Ariṣṭanemi was the son of Samudravijaya, and Śrī Kṛṣṇa was the son of Vasudeva. Samudravijaya and Vasudeva were biological brothers. Kṛṣṇa had endeavored to arrange Ariṣṭanemi's marriage. He was present at the time of Ariṣṭanemi's initiation. At the time of Rājīmatī's initiation as well, he imparted blessings in moving words.

Śrī Kṛṣṇa's beloved younger brother Gajasukumāla took initiation under Ariṣṭanemi. Eight of Śrī Kṛṣṇa's wives renounced the world under Ariṣṭanemi. Śrī Kṛṣṇa's sons and family members became disciples of Ariṣṭanemi. In Jain literature, numerous important accounts of dialogues, questions and answers, and diverse philosophical discussions between Ariṣṭanemi and Kṛṣṇa are found.

The Family of the Lord (Prabhu kā Parivāra)

At a Glance (Eka Jhalaka)

Five Auspicious Milestones (Pañca Kalyāṇaka)

♦

Influential Ācāryas of the Golden Era

10

Influential Ācāryas of the Golden Era

Ācārya Siddhasena

A literary figure of the highest order, an intellectual titan, and an unmatched dialectician, Siddhasena is an illustrious Ācārya of the Śvetāmbara tradition. His magnanimous personality, penetrating intellect, and profound philosophical insights left an indelible impression on the entire Jain community, as a consequence of which scholarly Ācāryas of both Digambara and Śvetāmbara traditions have commemorated Ācārya Siddhasena with profound veneration in their respective treatises.

The Kalikāla-Sarvajña Ācārya Hemacandra bowed his head before the genius of Ācārya Siddhasena. He proclaimed in the Ayogavyavacchedikā:

kva siddhasenastutayo mahārthā,

aśikṣitālāpakalā kva caiṣā ||

English Translation:

Where stand the profound, deeply meaningful eulogies of Siddhasena, and where stands this untutored babble of an unlettered person like myself!

Ācārya Siddhasena was an erudite scholar of the Sanskrit language. During that period, the prestige of Sanskrit was rising, while the Prākrit language had begun to be regarded by some as rustic. Non-Jain scholars were composing their treatises in Sanskrit. In order to render the Āgamas accessible to scholars, Siddhasena proposed translating the Āgamic texts from Prākrit into Sanskrit. He expressed this aspiration before his monastic preceptors. Gaining approval for novel ideas from conservative monks was by no means easy. The entire monastic community (saṅgha) vehemently opposed Ācārya Siddhasena. Opposition to his progressive ideas was natural in that context. The monks argued: 'Did the Tīrthaṅkaras and Gaṇadharas not know Sanskrit? Why did they compose the Āgamas in the Ardhamāgadhī language? Therefore, the very contemplation of translating the Āgamas into Sanskrit warrants formal expiation (prāyaścitta).'

As a consequence of this opposition from the saṅgha, Ācārya Siddhasena was awarded the severe penalty of changing his monastic garb and remaining exiled outside the monastic order for twelve years. While enduring this tenth expiation, known as pârāñcita, an exception was granted to Ācārya Siddhasena: If during the twelve-year period he accomplished an extraordinary work that profoundly glorified the Jain governance (śāsana-prabhāvanā), he could be reintegrated into the saṅgha prior to the completion of the term of punishment.

According to the Prabandhakośa, after wandering elsewhere for seven years, Siddhasena arrived in Avantī (Ujjain). Entering a Śiva temple, he sat down without bowing before the idol. The priest repeatedly urged him to prostrate before the idol, but it had no effect on Ācārya Siddhasena. Hearing the priest's words, he ignored them and did not bow. News of this incident reached the ears of the king. King Vikramāditya himself arrived at the Śiva temple and addressed Siddhasena:

'kṣīra-lilikṣo bhikṣo! kimiti tvayā devo na vandyate'—'O milk-sipping monk! Why do you not bow before the deity?'

Ācārya Siddhasena replied: 'The idol will not be able to endure my salutation.'

The king declared: 'bhavatu, kriyatāṃ namaskāraḥ'—'Let whatever must happen happen; first you must salute this idol.'

Receiving King Vikramāditya's command, Ācārya Siddhasena sat on a seat before the idol and, in melodious poetic language, commenced chanting a hymn of praise in Sanskrit to Lord Pārśvanātha in a resonant voice. Consequently, as a devotional panegyric composed by Ācārya Siddhasena, the immensely glorious 'Kalyāṇamandira Stotra' came into being. At the eleventh verse of the Kalyāṇamandira Stotra, an idol of Tīrthaṅkara Pārśvanātha miraculously manifested from that very spot.

Through this deed of Ācārya Siddhasena, the glorious influence of the Jain tradition was multiplied a hundredfold. King Vikramāditya accorded him supreme honor and became his devoted disciple. Ācārya Siddhasena also gained an exalted place in King Vikramāditya's assembly of scholars.

Regarding this achievement of Ācārya Siddhasena as a momentous contribution to the glorification of the order, the Śramaṇa Saṅgha readmitted him into the monastic fold five years prior to the completion of his term of punishment.

Ācārya Jinabhadragaṇi

Ācārya Jinabhadragaṇi Kṣamāśramaṇa was wholly dedicated to the words of the Āgamas. All his compositions served to nourish and elucidate the Āgamic tradition. He did not establish the Āgamas on philosophy, but established philosophy on the bedrock of the Āgamas. Every single sentence of his was tested on the anvil of the Āgamas. Hence, he was the living embodiment of the Āgamic voice.

His style of contemplation was exceptionally original. He applied Anekānta (non-absolutism) and Naya (standpoints) to every proposition. He also took the pioneering initiative of designating sensory perception—categorized within the perimeter of indirect knowledge (parokṣa)—as empirical direct perception (saṃvyavahāra-pratyakṣa). These comprehensive insights are predominantly available throughout his commentary (Bhāṣya) literature.

Devoted to ethical conduct, rooted in the Āgamas, and a repository of virtues, Ācārya Jinabhadragaṇi rendered an extraordinary contribution to the Jain community in the form of Bhāṣya literature. Therefore, subsequent Ācāryas have commemorated him as the Master Commentator, honoring him with epithets such as Bhāṣyāmbodhi (Ocean of Commentary), Bhāṣya-pīyūṣa-pāthodhi (Ocean of Commentarial Nectar), and Bhagavān Bhāṣyakāra. Presently, nine compositions composed by him are extant.

Ācārya Jinabhadragaṇi's Bhāṣya literature will ever remain an indispensable subject of study and reflection for researchers.

Illuminating the earth with the rays of his knowledge for 104 years within the Jain tradition, Jinabhadragaṇi Kṣamāśramaṇa was an immense ocean of Āgamic treasures.

Ācārya Mānatuṅga

Among hymnal poetry (stotra-kāvya), the Bhaktāmara Stotra is an exquisite masterpiece. It is an overflowing fountain of devotional nectar (bhakti-rasa). The composer of this stotra was Ācārya Mānatuṅga. He was a distinguished poet and celebrated scholar of his era. Poetic genius was exceptionally developed in him, and he possessed absolute mastery over the Sanskrit language.

At that time, King Harṣadeva reigned in Vārāṇasī. Endowed with spotless character and the jewel among intellectuals, Harṣadeva accorded extraordinary honor to scholars and poets. The poets named Mayūra and Bāṇa, profound scholars of the Vedas and Vedāṅgas, enjoyed special honor in the royal assembly on account of their miraculous powers.

King Harṣadeva's prime minister was a Jain. He humbly submitted to the king: 'O Lord of the Earth! This earth is a repository of gems; within its great empire there exist treasures of priceless jewels. Jains too possess extraordinary mastery over miraculous sciences. The supremely influential Jain scholar, Ācārya Mānatuṅga, is currently gracing your city. He is fully capable of satisfying your curious inquiry. Pray invite him with honor.' The king instructed the minister to summon him respectfully. The minister approached Mānatuṅga, apprised him of the situation, and requested: 'Kindly sanctify the royal courtyard with your holy feet and demonstrate the application of miraculous knowledge.' Ācārya Mānatuṅga replied: 'Monks liberated from all mundane desires have no concern with such exhibitions.' The minister pleaded: 'I know that you are unattached and desireless, but the question of glorifying the Jain dharma is paramount.' Yielding to the minister's reasoned entreaty, Mānatuṅga arrived at the royal assembly and, conferring spiritual blessings upon all, took an appropriate seat. King Harṣadeva addressed Ācārya Mānatuṅga seated before him: 'O supreme ascetic! Behold how influential the Brāhmaṇas are on this earth! One scholar worshipped the sun and eradicated a dreadful affliction like leprosy from his body. Another scholar's severed limbs were restored to their proper places through the worship of Goddess Caṇḍikā. These extraordinarily powerful Brāhmaṇa scholars are before you. Now you too demonstrate the power of your mantra-science.'

King Harṣadeva's prime minister was a Jain. He humbly submitted to the king: 'O Lord of the Earth! This earth is a repository of gems; within its great empire there exist treasures of priceless jewels. Jains too possess extraordinary mastery over miraculous sciences. The supremely influential Jain scholar, Ācārya Mānatuṅga, is currently gracing your city. He is fully capable of satisfying your curious inquiry. Pray invite him with honor.' The king instructed the minister to summon him respectfully. The minister approached Mānatuṅga, apprised him of the situation, and requested: 'Kindly sanctify the royal courtyard with your holy feet and demonstrate the application of miraculous knowledge.' Ācārya Mānatuṅga replied: 'Monks liberated from all mundane desires have no concern with such exhibitions.' The minister pleaded: 'I know that you are unattached and desireless, but the question of glorifying the Jain dharma is paramount.' Yielding to the minister's reasoned entreaty, Mānatuṅga arrived at the royal assembly and, conferring spiritual blessings upon all, took an appropriate seat. King Harṣadeva addressed Ācārya Mānatuṅga seated before him: 'O supreme ascetic! Behold how influential the Brāhmaṇas are on this earth! One scholar worshipped the sun and eradicated a dreadful affliction like leprosy from his body. Another scholar's severed limbs were restored to their proper places through the worship of Goddess Caṇḍikā. These extraordinarily powerful Brāhmaṇa scholars are before you. Now you too demonstrate the power of your mantra-science.'

Ācārya Mānatuṅga had no desire to exhibit miraculous feats. From the standpoint of Jain Dharma, the display of supernatural powers is forbidden. But the question of glorifying the Jain order had now become paramount. Ācārya Mānatuṅga absorbed himself in eulogizing the Jina. Filled with devotional nectar, he composed forty-eight verses. (Presently, according to our tradition, only 44 verses are extant.) With every verse, the dense links of the iron chains loosened and the padlocks shattered. Serene and majestic, the Ācārya emerged liberated from the iron chains and appeared before the royal assembly. In gentle, sweet tones, he conferred blessings upon the monarch.

At dawn, the radiant forehead of the elevated sage, glowing like the rising sun upon the summit of Udayagiri, captivated all onlookers. King Harṣadeva was profoundly overwhelmed by this astounding event and exclaimed: 'O Muni! Your equanimity and spirit of surrender are miraculous! Blessed am I, blessed is my land, and blessed is this day of mine! From this day forth, I accept your spiritual guidance.' Through the sacred teachings of Ācārya Mānatuṅga, the king performed numerous works for the upliftment of the Jain tradition and himself embraced Jain Dharma.

Ācārya Akalaṅka

Bhaṭṭa Akalaṅka was a brilliant orator, master poet, adept debater, and profound philosophical Ācārya of the Digambara tradition. He was the foundational architect who breathed life into Jain logic (Jaina-Nyāya). Even among Ācāryas well-versed in the scriptures, Ācārya Akalaṅka stood foremost. The twin brothers, Akalaṅka and Niṣkalaṅka, possessed extraordinary intellect.

Once, in order to study Buddhist epistemology (pramāṇa-śāstra), the two brothers disguised their identity and entered a Buddhist university. The Buddhist students were being taught the doctrine of sevenfold predication (saptabhaṅgī) under Anekānta as an opposing thesis (pūrvapakṣa). Due to a textual corruption in the manuscript, the correct meaning could not be grasped intellectually. Hence, that day's lecture was adjourned. During the night, these brothers corrected the corrupt text. Seeing the corrected reading the next day, the Buddhist preceptors suspected the presence of a Jain among the Buddhist students. A search commenced. One day, the teachers commanded all students to step over an idol of a Jina. A crisis arose before Akalaṅka and Niṣkalaṅka. They acted with astute ingenuity: drawing a line across the idol or placing a thread across it, the twin brothers stepped over the line/thread and walked ahead. In this test, they evaded detection.

The Buddhist teachers devised another method of detection. Once at night, they dropped a bag filled with bronze utensils from above. Hearing the deafening crash, the students awakened startled, each invoking their personal guardian deity. These two brothers chanted the obstacle-destroying Namaskāra Mahāmantra. Hearing this supreme mantra, the Buddhists surrounded them and locked them in a prison cell on the upper story of the monastery.

Somehow, both succeeded in escaping from there. Horsemen pursued them on the orders of the Buddhist preceptors. Seeing the horsemen galloping behind them, Niṣkalaṅka said to Akalaṅka: 'Noble brother! Your intellect is sharper than mine. Therefore, I shall run to distract them; by some means, save your life!' Akalaṅka entered a pond and covered himself with lotus leaves, thus preserving his life. At that time, washermen were washing clothes on the bank of the pond. Seeing Niṣkalaṅka running, a washerman also began running alongside him in fear of the horsemen. The horsemen, mistaking the washerman for Akalaṅka, killed both Niṣkalaṅka and the washerman. After the horsemen departed, Akalaṅka emerged from the pond and wandered fearless across the earth.

Becoming a Jain monk, the scholar Bhaṭṭa Akalaṅka adorned the post of Ācārya. During his lifetime, he engaged in philosophical debates with numerous scholars, among whom he was primarily the formidable adversary of Buddhist philosophers. On account of his commanding personality, he achieved the highest standing in the lineage of Ācāryas. He is rightfully acclaimed as the Father of Jain Logic.

This episode from the lives of Ācārya Akalaṅka and Niṣkalaṅka bears close resemblance to the chain of events concerning Ācārya Haribhadra's disciples, Haṃsa and Paramahaṃsa.

Ācārya Haribhadra

In the Jain tradition, several Ācāryas bore the name Haribhadra. The present Haribhadrasūri is the earliest among them and is famous by the epithet 'Yākinīmahattarā-sūnu' (spiritual son of the nun Yākinī Mahattarā). Even after centuries, Haribhadrasūri's life shines like a luminous celestial star. The magnanimous mindset that developed in him is rarely witnessed in ordinary beings. He employed reverential terms such as Maharṣi and Mahāmuni even for philosophical opponents. His noble proclamation remains widely celebrated to this day:

pakṣapāto na me vīre, na dveṣaḥ kapilādiṣu |

yuktimadvacanaṃ yasya, tasya kāryaḥ parigrahaḥ ||

English Translation:

I harbor no partisan bias toward Mahāvīra, nor prejudice against Kapila and other thinkers. Whosoever's utterance is endowed with rational validity, that alone is to be embraced.

In the earlier half of his life, Ācārya Haribhadra was a Brāhmaṇa scholar deeply versed in Vedic philosophy. He held the post of royal priest (rājapurohita) in the kingdom. To indicate that there was no scholar comparable to him, his proud mind had resolved that if he failed to comprehend the meaning of any sentence uttered by anyone, he would accept discipleship under that person. Haribhadra regarded himself as omniscient in this Kaliyuga.

Once at night, while returning from the royal assembly, the royal priest Haribhadra passed near a Jain nunnery (upāśraya). In the upāśraya, the leader of the nun's order, Mahattarā Yākinī, was reciting a saṅgrahaṇī verse in a resonant voice:

cakki dugaṃ haripaṇagaṃ, paṇagaṃ cakkīṇa kesavo cakkī |

kesava cakkī kesava, ducakkī kesava cakkī ya ||

English Translation:

Two Cakravartins, five Haris (Vāsudevas), five Cakravartins, a Keśava (Vāsudeva), a Cakravartī; a Keśava, a Cakravartī, a Keśava, two Cakravartins, a Keśava, and a Cakravartī.

The melodic waves of the verse struck Haribhadra's ears. He listened to it repeatedly with intense concentration. He contemplated deeply within, yet despite exhausting his intellectual faculties, he could not extract the butter of its meaning. This dealt a crushing blow to Haribhadra's ego for the first time. The burning thirst to comprehend the meaning led him to the upāśraya. And having reached the upāśraya, the following morning, in accordance with his pledge, upon understanding the meaning, he was initiated into monkhood under their preceptor, Jinadattasūri.

Ācārya Haribhadra was already an erudite scholar of Vedic philosophy. Following his initiation as a Jain monk, he became a distinguished authority on Jain philosophy. Recognizing his multifaceted brilliance, his Guru appointed him to the position of Ācārya.

During his lifetime, he authored an immense corpus of sublime literature. His treatises stand as matchless treasures of the Jain tradition. His pen explored diverse subjects. In the Āgamic domain, he was the pioneering commentator (Ṭīkākāra). In the field of Yoga as well, he provided revolutionary perspectives. He authored numerous intellectually enriching miscellaneous texts (Prakīrṇakas). Although the entire literary output of Ācārya Haribhadrasūri is not extant today, whatever has fortunately survived is of the highest academic caliber. In it, the boundless genius of Ācārya Haribhadrasūri is reflected. His works provide abundant material for research scholars.

Ācārya Abhayadeva (Navāṅgī Ṭīkākāra)

Several Ācāryas bore the name Abhayadeva. The present Ācārya Abhayadeva is celebrated as the Navāṅgī Ṭīkākāra (commentator on nine Āgamic Aṅgas). Abhayadeva was an exceptionally industrious ascetic. He possessed total mastery over the Sanskrit language. His spiritual conquest over taste (svāda-vijaya) served as an inspiring ideal for others.

At night in Patyapadrapura, Ācārya Abhayadeva sat in deep meditation. An inner inspiration to compose commentaries arose in his mind. According to texts such as the Prabhāvakacarita, this inspiration was imparted by the guardian deity of the spiritual order (Śāsanadevī). In the dead of night, the goddess appeared before the meditating Abhayadeva and said: 'O Muni! In the commentarial literature composed by Ācārya Śīlāṅka and Koṭyācārya, the commentaries on the Ācārāṅga and Sūtrakṛtāṅga Āgamas are preserved. The remaining commentaries have been lost due to the adverse effects of time. Therefore, to compensate for this monumental loss and for the welfare of the saṅgha, exert yourself and commence the work of composing commentaries.'

The introverted Ācārya Abhayadeva replied: 'O Devī! For a dull-witted person like myself, it is difficult even to fully comprehend the Āgamas composed by Sudharmāsvāmī. If out of ignorance an interpretation contrary to scriptural tenets (utsūtra) is expounded, this undertaking could become the cause of severe karmic bondage and prolong endless worldly transmigration. Yet, transgressing the words of the Śāsanadevī is also improper. Hence, a state of utter dilemma has arisen within me regarding your prompt.'

Resolving the perplexed mind of Ācārya Abhayadeva, the goddess submitted: 'O respected sage! It is only after recognizing you as entirely qualified to grasp the true meaning of the doctrines that I have requested this momentous task of you. Wherever you encounter doubt in interpreting the Āgamic texts, remember me at that moment. I shall resolve your questions by inquiring directly of Sīmandhara Svāmī.'

Ācārya Abhayadevasūri drew solace from the words of the Śāsanadevī. Recognizing that the power of austere energy (tapobala) is indispensable for a monumental undertaking like the Āgamas, he initiated the work of commentary composition accompanied by continuous ācamla (āyambila) austerities. Dedicated with singular focus, he persevered in his task. Through his tireless labor, he succeeded in composing monumental commentaries on nine Āgama texts.

Ācārya Hemacandra

The words of Ācārya Hemacandra are 'nectar-like for all living beings'—there is no exaggeration in these words of Prabhācandrācārya. The scholar Hemacandra was an era-founding Ācārya (yuga-saṃsthāpaka). He was endowed with extraordinary intellect. Composing three and a half crore (35 million) verses, he filled the treasury of Sarasvatī with inexhaustible wealth. By inspiring King Siddharāja Jayasiṃha of Gujarat with spiritual wisdom and administering the vows of lay discipleship to his successor, King Kumārapāla, he expanded the glory of the Jain tradition a thousandfold. Through the diffusion of the rays of his sun-like knowledge, the spirit of Gujarati culture pulsated with vitality. Every particle of the land radiated spiritual light. A new consciousness awakened in social and political life as well. Literary institutions received a fresh impetus; the arts came alive. In Gujarat, this era represented the pinnacle of the golden age of Jain Dharma.

The character of Ācārya Hemacandra was pure like refined gold. He was a vast repository of knowledge. He authored a monumental volume of invaluable treatises. This is the reason he came to be universally celebrated as Kalikāla-Sarvajña (the Omniscient of the Modern Age). Reading his works, the Western scholar Bühler and Peter Peterson addressed him as an 'Ocean of Knowledge'. Hemacandra was an extraordinary polymath. With the vision of permeating Jain culture among the masses, he composed literature across diverse genres. Hemacandra's pen moved effortlessly on grammar, poetics, lexicography, prosody, rhetoric, logic, ethics, astrology, and history. His creative oeuvre is an incomparable chapter in literary history. Even today, the extant treatises composed by Ācāryavarya Hemacandra provide invaluable scholarship to readers.

In the domain of grammar, he composed 'Siddha-Hema-Vyākaraṇa', 'Siddha-Hema-Liṅgānuśāsana', and 'Dhātupārāyaṇa'. Enhancing lexicography, he produced 'Abhidhānacintāmaṇi', 'Anekārthasaṅgraha', 'Deśīnāmamālā', and 'Nighaṇṭukośa'. In poetics, he authored 'Kāvyānuśāsana'; in prosody, 'Chandonuśāsana'; in poetry, the Sanskrit-Prākrit 'Dvyāśraya Kāvya'; in history, the epic 'Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacaritra' and 'Pariśiṣṭaparvan'; in philosophy and logic, the 'Pramāṇa-Mīmāṃsā'; and in yoga treatises, the monumental 'Yogaśāstra'. These masterpieces composed by Ācārya Hemacandra are of paramount utility for comprehending Jain history and for students and scholars of Sanskrit.

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Ācārya Bhāramaljī

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Ācārya Bhāramaljī

The second Ācārya of Terāpantha, Bhāramaljī, was born in Vikrama Saṃvat 1804 in the village of Muhā (Mewar) into the Loḍhā family of the Osavāla lineage. His father's name was Kiśanoji and his mother's name was Dhāriṇī. At the tender age of ten, he received initiation within the Sthānakavāsī tradition at the hands of Muni Bhīkhaṇjī (Ācārya Bhikṣu). From childhood, along with being natural, simple, and humble, he was an ardent champion of truth. When Ācārya Bhīkhaṇjī separated from the Sthānakavāsī sect on account of doctrinal differences, Bhāramaljī Svāmī followed him. Among the disciples of Ācārya Bhikṣu, Muni Bhāramaljī was his foremost devotee and chief disciple. He valued the command of Ācārya Bhikṣu more than his own life.

Muni Bhāramaljī was a steadfast practitioner (sthirayogī), profoundly wise, and ceaselessly diligent. His education and monastic training took place under the direct tutelage of Ācārya Bhikṣu. In a short span of time, by committing thousands of verses to memory, he demonstrated his dazzling intellect. He possessed a special passion for svādhyāya (scriptural study). Frequently, following the evening pratikramaṇa, he would stand upright for a whole quarter of the night (prahara) reciting and contemplating the verses of the Uttarādhyayana Sūtra. He was exceptionally skilled in the art of calligraphy. His script was elegant, balanced, and shapely. He transcribed virtually all the treatises composed by Svāmījī. Even today, those manuscripts are recognized as the authoritative original texts of Svāmījī's works. Whatever Ācārya Bhikṣu composed, taught, or drafted as monastic constitutions (maryādās), Bhāramaljī Svāmī transcribed them, conferring upon them institutional permanence. In his lifetime, he transcribed approximately five hundred thousand verses.

The life of Bhāramaljī Svāmī was Ācārya Bhikṣu's testing laboratory. Whenever Svāmījī wished to implement any rule in the order, he would first test it upon Bhāramaljī. The consequence was that other monks were spontaneously inspired by his example.

Once, putting Bhāramaljī Svāmī to the test, Ācārya Bhikṣu said: 'If any individual points out an error in you, you will have to observe a three-day fast (telā) as penance.' Bhāramaljī Svāmī inquired: 'Gurudeva! Will the telā have to be performed upon the veracity of the error, or even upon a false accusation?' Svāmījī replied: 'The telā must be performed in either case. If there is an error, consider it an expiation (prāyaścitta); if there is no error, consider it the fruition of past karmas.' Bhāramaljī Svāmī gladly bowed his head to the Guru's command. He was scrupulously vigilant regarding every monastic regulation. It is said that throughout his life, he never allowed an occasion to arise for anyone to find fault with him.

Muni Bhāramaljī was appointed as Yuvācārya on Mārgaśīrṣa Kṛṣṇa Saptamī, Vikrama Saṃvat 1832. Following the demise of Svāmījī, he ascended the seat of Ācārya on Bhādrapada Śuklā Trayodaśī, Vikrama Saṃvat 1860.

Ācārya Bhāramaljī was remarkably courageous. He had never learned to panic in the face of adversities.

Once, certain detractors informed Rānā Bhīma Siṃhajī of Udaipur that the venerable Bhāramaljī of Terāpantha was an opponent of compassion and charity. They alleged that wherever he resides, rains do not fall, and that if his cāturmāsa took place there, the subjects would suffer severe distress.

Rāṇājī, believing their claims to be true, ordered Bhāramaljī Svāmī to leave the city. In accordance with ascetic rules, he departed from there and arrived in Rājanagara. Later, a resident named Kesarjī Bhaṇḍārī, finding an opportune private moment, said to the Rānā: 'Mahārāja! Those holy saints who do not trouble even an ant have been expelled by you from the city. Now I hear that thoughts are being entertained to exile them from the entire state of Mewar. But bear firmly in mind: nature never forgives a realm where ascetics are tormented. The untoward calamities that have occurred here following the expulsion of the monks (an epidemic, the untimely demise of your son-in-law) are the direct consequence of nature's wrath.' Kesarjī apprised the Mahārānā of the authentic facts. The Mahārānā repented deeply for his error.

The Mahārānā immediately penned a letter in his own hand to Bhāramaljī Svāmī. He wrote: 'Do not look toward those wicked individuals who acted maliciously. Looking with compassion upon me and the subjects of the city, pray bestow your grace.' Dispatching this letter with his emissary, he sent it to Ācāryaśrī Bhāramaljī, entreating him to return to Udaipur. On account of advanced age, Bhāramaljī Svāmī did not visit there a second time. The Rānā sent another urgent missive (rukkā) imploring his visit. Thereupon, upon his earnest entreaty, Bhāramaljī Svāmī dispatched thirteen monks, including Muni Hemarājajī, Muni Rāyacandajī, and Muni Jītamalajī, to Udaipur. There are numerous such episodes in the life of Bhāramaljī Svāmī that radiate his innate spiritual virtues. During his reign, thirty-eight monks and forty-four nuns were initiated.

On Māgha Kṛṣṇa Aṣṭamī, Vikrama Saṃvat 1878, Ācārya Bhāramaljī passed away to heaven. In his final moments, he undertook six praharas of conditionally qualified fasting (sāgārī anaśana) and three praharas of complete fourfold terminal fasting (cauvihāra anaśana).

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Ācārya Rāyacandjī

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Ācārya Rāyacandjī

The third Ācārya of the Terāpantha religious order, Rāyacandjī, is celebrated as 'Ṛṣirāya'. He was born in Vikrama Saṃvat 1847 in the village of Baḍī Rāvaliyā in the Udaipur division of Rajasthan. His father's name was Shāh Catarojī and his mother's name was Kuśālāñjī. At the age of eleven, on Caitra Śuklā Pūrṇimā, Vikrama Saṃvat 1857, he received initiation under Ācārya Bhikṣu along with his mother.

In a short time, Muni Rāyacandjī acquired profound knowledge of the Āgamas. Numerous sūtras were committed to his memory. He was exceptionally skilled in religious discourse. His voice was powerful and filled with melodious resonance. It is said that when he delivered sermons, his voice could be heard in neighboring villages.

Muni Rāyacandjī was deeply trusted by Ācārya Bhikṣu. He enjoyed the proximity of Ācārya Bhikṣu for a total of only three years. He remained equally trusted by the second Ācārya, Bhāramaljī. In a brief period, he shone forth as a promising, brilliant monk. In internal administrative matters of the saṅgha, his counsel was sought.

On Vaiśākha Kṛṣṇa Navamī, Vikrama Saṃvat 1878, at Kelwā (Mewar), Ācārya Bhāramaljī conferred upon him the post of Yuvācārya. On Māgha Kṛṣṇa Navamī, Saṃvat 1878, at Rājanagara, he was installed upon the seat of Ācārya. His tall stature and commanding personality instantly impressed others. During his era, austerities flourished immensely.

Ācārya Rāyacandjī had a profound interest in travels across diverse regions (deśāṭana). In his lifetime, he undertook journeys across many new provinces. Those travels contributed immensely to the propagation of Terāpantha. It was Ṛṣirāya who first set foot in Gujarat, Saurashtra, and Kutch; prior to him, no monk of Terāpantha had visited those territories. In the capacity of an Ācārya, Ṛṣirāya was the very first to travel to the Malwa region. The credit for initiating the flow of the stream of Terāpantha in the Thalī region belongs solely to Ṛṣirāya.

Ṛṣirāya possessed a fearless nature. He articulated his views so persuasively that the person before him could not help but bow in agreement. Once he was traveling through Mewar. Some monks were walking a short distance ahead of him. In those days, dacoits held significant sway there. During the foot march, the monks walking ahead encountered mounted bandits. The bandits commanded the ascetics to set down their belongings. The monks said: 'We possess no wealth. We carry with us only necessary monastic clothing and wooden alms-bowls.'

Just then, a mounted bandit attempted to snatch the woolen blanket resting upon a monk's shoulder. That monk immediately spread the blanket upon the ground and sat upon it. The dacoit dismounted from his horse and began dragging the blanket out from beneath the monk. Ṛṣirāya witnessed this scene from afar. Immediately roaring out a commanding challenge (hākala) from that very spot, he thundered: 'Are you all gathered here mere base cowards (golā), or is there a genuine Rājapūta among you?' Ṛṣirāya's resonant voice reverberated far into the distance. The chieftain of the dacoit band, the 'Ṭhākura', who was riding a little behind, galloped forward at once. By then, Ṛṣirāya had also reached the monks. Arriving, the Ṭhākura asked: 'Why, Mahārāja! Why did you feel the need for a Rājapūta?' Ṛṣirāya replied: 'We had no need whatsoever. I merely wished to know whether there is any Rājapūta among you, for it is my conviction that a Rājapūta has not yet fallen so low as to dare plunder holy ascetics!' Bowing at the feet of Ṛṣirāya, the Ṭhākura admitted his transgression. Not only that, he dispatched two of his companions along with the monks so that none of his comrades following behind would commit such a blunder again.

Ṛṣirāya's reign lasted for thirty years. His final cāturmāsa of Vikrama Saṃvat 1908 took place in Udaipur. While wandering in the vicinity of Udaipur, he arrived in 'Choṭī Rāvaliyā'. There, on Māgha Kṛṣṇa Caturdaśī, while stepping outside in the evening for natural evacuation, he was suddenly stricken by a respiratory crisis, and during that illness, following pratikramaṇa, he departed forever from this mortal world.

During Ṛṣirāya's tenure, a total of two hundred and forty-five initiations took place, comprising seventy-seven monks and one hundred and sixty-eight nuns.

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Ācārya Jītamaljī

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Ācārya Jītamaljī

The fourth Ācārya of Terāpantha, Jītamaljī, was an extraordinarily brilliant Ācārya in the Jain tradition. In his literary compositions, he adopted the pen name 'Jaya'; hence he is far more renowned by the name Jayācārya. He was born in the village of Royata in Marwar on Āśvina Śuklā Caturdaśī, Vikrama Saṃvat 1860. His father's name was Āīdānajī Golchā and his mother's name was Kallūjī. When Jayācārya was merely seven years of age, he resolved to be initiated as an ascetic.

Jayācārya's initiation was solemnized in Jaipur by Yuvācārya Rāyacandjī under the decree of Ācārya Bhāramaljī. The day of initiation was Māgha Kṛṣṇa Saptamī, Vikrama Saṃvat 1869. At that time, Jayācārya had entered his tenth year.

Jayācārya's elder brother, Svarūpacandajī Svāmī, had been initiated earlier that year on Pauṣa Śuklā Navamī in Jaipur. Approximately one month after Jayācārya's initiation, on Phālguna Kṛṣṇa Ekādaśī, his mother Kallūjī and his second elder brother Bhīmarājajī also embraced initiation. His paternal aunt in worldly relation, Ajabūjī, was already initiated. In this manner, Jayācārya's entire family dedicated itself to the Terāpantha religious order.

Following initiation, Jayācārya was entrusted to Muni Hemarājajī for his education. Having secured a capable supreme preceptor like Bhāramaljī Svāmī, an initiating Guru like Ṛṣirāya, and an Āgama-scholar academic preceptor like Hemarājajī Svāmī, it was as if he bathed in the sacred confluence of three holy rivers (Triveṇī).

Jayācārya was an unshakeable yogī and a person of supreme intellect from the outset. Once, Hemarājajī Svāmī arrived in Pālī. They stayed in shops in the market. Muni Jītamala was with him. During those days, an acrobatic troupe arrived there. Planting bamboo poles in the market, they commenced their performance. Young and old from the city gathered to watch. Muni Jītamala was engaged in transcribing manuscripts in an upper room. Right before his eyes, the performance began; on this side, his writing work proceeded uninterrupted. He did not lift his eyes even once to glance at the performance. A person hostile to Terāpantha observed the young monk and thought: if only this monk looks at the drama even once, I will find ammunition to slander him. He watched until the very end, but failed. When the performance concluded, words burst from that man's lips: 'The foundation of an order that possesses such dedicated, steadfast yogī monks cannot be shaken by anyone for at least a hundred years!'

Observing Jayācārya's burgeoning capabilities, Ṛṣirāya appointed him to the office of Yuvācārya in Vikrama Saṃvat 1894. Following the demise of Ṛṣirāya, on Māgha Śuklā Pūrṇimā, Vikrama Saṃvat 1908, he assumed the responsibility of the Terāpantha religious order.

During Jayācārya's tenure, the Terāpantha order had crossed one century and was stepping into its second. That era was a period of ideological transition. The internal administration of Terāpantha called for reformation. Jayācārya established numerous administrative systems within the order. A century ago, by establishing the system of equitable distribution (saṃvibhāga), Jayācārya gave concrete form to spiritual socialism. Jayācārya not only instituted the collective sharing of sectarian books, monastic requisites, and physical labor, but also equalized the groups of monks and nuns. Until that time, the number of associates in the various groups of monks and nuns was unequal. Jayācārya prepared everyone's mindset psychologically and imparted a smooth, orderly functioning to the administration. In modern parlance, this administrative transformation can be termed Jayācārya's revolution. To keep the order prosperous and well-organized, he also formulated new constitutions (maryādās).

Śrīmad Jayācārya, along with being a master disciplinarian, constitution-maker, and psychological leader, was a monumental servant of literature. Poetic talent was innate to him. At the age of eleven, he composed the work 'Santaguṇamālā'. At the age of nineteen, he composed a poetic translation in the Rajasthani language of a profound treatise like the Prajñāpanā (Paṇṇavaṇā). Thereafter, Jayācārya released an inexhaustible torrent of literature. His Rajasthani metrical translation of the Bhagavatī Sūtra, the fifth Aṅga of Jain canonical literature, entitled 'Bhagavatī kī Joḍa', is regarded as the largest single work in Rajasthani literature. He not only composed metrical commentaries on Āgama texts, but also wrote critical analytical annotations based on his independent spiritual realizations. Jayācārya moved his pen across diverse genres: narratives, memoirs, hymns of praise, philosophy, logic, prosody, grammar, and meditative yoga. His entire literary output encompasses approximately three hundred thousand verses.

A substantial portion of Jayācārya's literature was dedicated to weaving and elucidating the philosophical thoughts of Ācārya Bhikṣu. He was dedicated to Ācārya Bhikṣu with his whole soul. He can rightfully be called the supreme commentator (Bhāṣyakāra) of Ācārya Bhikṣu. He became so thoroughly assimilated into the life of Ācārya Bhikṣu that he came to be recognized as a second Bhikṣu.

Jayācārya had an immense passion for svādhyāya. Thousands of verses from numerous Āgamas were on the tip of his tongue. In his final years, he devoted most of his time to Āgamic study, meditation, self-reflection, and literary creation. Through continuous immersion in the Āgamas, his intellect had become so razor-sharp that whichever topic he touched, he would marshal a vast chain of canonical citations to corroborate it.

Within the towering personality of Jayācārya, multiple talents blossomed simultaneously. He served the order as Ācārya for thirty years. During his tenure, he adorned, refined, augmented the tradition of Ācārya Bhikṣu, and provided an unshakeable foundation to the organization.

During his reign, three hundred and twenty-nine initiations took place, comprising one hundred and five monks and two hundred and twenty-four nuns. On Bhādrapada Kṛṣṇa Dvādaśī, Vikrama Saṃvat 1938, his great departure (mahāprayāṇa) occurred in Jaipur.

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Twenty-Five Categories (Pacīs Bola: 15–25)

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Twenty-Five Categories (Pacīs Bola: 15–25)

15. Fifteenth Category: Eight Kinds of Soul (Ātmā Āṭha)

1. Dravya Ātmā (Substantial Soul)

2. Kaṣāya Ātmā (Passional Soul)

3. Yoga Ātmā (Active Soul)

4. Upayoga Ātmā (Attentive Soul)

5. Jñāna Ātmā (Cognitive Soul)

6. Darśana Ātmā (Perceptive Soul)

7. Cāritra Ātmā (Conduct Soul)

8. Vīrya Ātmā (Energetic Soul)

16. Sixteenth Category: Twenty-Four Daṇḍakas (Daṇḍaka Caubīsa)

The realm of infernal beings (Seven Narakas) comprises one Daṇḍaka: First

Ten Daṇḍakas of Residential Deities (Bhavanapati Devas):

• Daṇḍaka of Asurakumāra: Second

• Daṇḍaka of Nāgakumāra: Third

• Daṇḍaka of Suparṇakumāra: Fourth

• Daṇḍaka of Vidyutkumāra: Fifth

• Daṇḍaka of Agnikumāra: Sixth

• Daṇḍaka of Dvīpakumāra: Seventh

• Daṇḍaka of Udhikukāra (Ocean Deities): Eighth

• Daṇḍaka of Dikkumāra: Ninth

• Daṇḍaka of Vāyukumāra: Tenth

• Daṇḍaka of Stanitakumāra: Eleventh

Five Daṇḍakas of Immobile Living Beings (Sthāvara Jīvas):

• Daṇḍaka of Earth-bodied beings (Pṛthvīkāya): Twelfth

• Daṇḍaka of Water-bodied beings (Apkāya): Thirteenth

• Daṇḍaka of Fire-bodied beings (Tejaskāya): Fourteenth

• Daṇḍaka of Air-bodied beings (Vāyukāya): Fifteenth

• Daṇḍaka of Flora-bodied beings (Vanaspatikāya): Sixteenth

• Daṇḍaka of Two-sensed beings (Dvīndriya): Seventeenth

• Daṇḍaka of Three-sensed beings (Trīndriya): Eighteenth

• Daṇḍaka of Four-sensed beings (Caturindriya): Nineteenth

• Daṇḍaka of Five-sensed Animals (Tiryañca-Pañcendriya): Twentieth

• Daṇḍaka of Five-sensed Humans (Manuṣya-Pañcendriya): Twenty-First

• Daṇḍaka of Interstitial Deities (Vyantara Devas): Twenty-Second

• Daṇḍaka of Astral Deities (Jyotiṣka Devas): Twenty-Third

• Daṇḍaka of Celestial Deities (Vaimānika Devas): Twenty-Fourth

17. Seventeenth Category: Six Thought-Colorations (Leśyā Chaha)

1. Kṛṣṇa Leśyā (Black)

2. Nīla Leśyā (Blue)

3. Kāpota Leśyā (Grey/Pigeon)

4. Tejo Leśyā (Fiery/Red)

5. Padma Leśyā (Lotus/Yellow)

6. Śukla Leśyā (Pure White)

18. Eighteenth Category: Three Standpoints of Faith / Vision (Dṛṣṭi Tīna)

1. Samyag-dṛṣṭi (Right Vision/Faith)

2. Mithyā-dṛṣṭi (Perverted Vision/Faith)

3. Samyag-mithyā-dṛṣṭi (Mixed Vision/Faith)

19. Nineteenth Category: Four Kinds of Meditation (Dhyāna Cāra)

1. Ārta-dhyāna (Distressed/Painful Meditation)

2. Raudra-dhyāna (Wrathful/Cruel Meditation)

3. Dharmya-dhyāna (Righteous/Virtuous Meditation)

4. Śukla-dhyāna (Pure/Luminous Meditation)

20. Twentieth Category: Knowledge of the Six Substances (Ṣaḍ Dravyoṃ kā Jñāna)

1. Dharmāstikāya (Medium of Motion)

• From substance (Dravya): One substance.

• From space (Kṣetra): Pervading the entire cosmos (Loka-parimāṇa).

• From time (Kāla): Beginningless and endless (Anādi-ananta).

• From state (Bhāva): Formless / Non-material (Arūpī).

• From attribute (Guṇa): Passive/neutral auxiliary cause in the motion of moving entities.

2. Adharmāstikāya (Medium of Rest)

• From substance (Dravya): One substance.

• From space (Kṣetra): Pervading the entire cosmos (Loka-parimāṇa).

• From time (Kāla): Beginningless and endless (Anādi-ananta).

• From state (Bhāva): Formless / Non-material (Arūpī).

• From attribute (Guṇa): Passive/neutral auxiliary cause in the static rest of resting entities.

3. Ākāśāstikāya (Space)

• From substance (Dravya): One substance.From substance (Dravya): One substance.

• From space (Kṣetra): Pervading both cosmos and trans-cosmos (Loka-aloka-parimāṇa).

• From time (Kāla): Beginningless and endless (Anādi aura ananta).

• From state (Bhāva): Formless / Non-material (Arūpī).

• From attribute (Guṇa): Accommodating attribute (Bhājana-guṇa)—granting space/accommodation to all substances.

4. Kāla (Time)

• From substance (Dravya): Infinite substances (individual time-particles).

• From space (Kṣetra): Limited to the Two-and-a-half Continents (Aḍhāī-dvīpa-parimāṇa).

• From time (Kāla): Beginningless and endless (Anādi aura ananta).

• From state (Bhāva): Formless / Non-material (Arūpī).

• From attribute (Guṇa): Assisting in transformation (Vartanā-guṇa).

5. Pudgalāstikāya (Matter)

• From substance (Dravya): Infinite substances.

• From space (Kṣetra): Pervading the cosmos (Loka-parimāṇa).

• From time (Kāla): Beginningless and endless (Anādi aura ananta).

• From state (Bhāva): Endowed with form / Material (Rūpī).

• From attribute (Guṇa): Subject to integration and disintegration (Galana-milana svabhāva).

6. Jīvāstikāya (Soul)

• From substance (Dravya): Infinite substances

• From space (Kṣetra): Pervading the cosmos (Loka-parimāṇa).

• From time (Kāla): Beginningless and endless (Anādi aura ananta).

• From state (Bhāva): Formless / Non-material (Arūpī).

• From attribute (Guṇa): Consciousness attribute (Caitanya-guṇa).

21. Twenty-First Category: Two Existential Aggregates (Rāśi Do)

1. Jīva-rāśi (The aggregate of sentient souls)

2. Ajīva-rāśi (The aggregate of insentient non-soul entities)

22. Twenty-Second Category: Twelve Vows of the Householder (Śrāvaka ke Bāraha Vrata)

1. Ahiṃsā-aṇuvrata (Partial vow of non-violence)

2. Satya-aṇuvrata (Partial vow of truthfulness)

3. Asteya-aṇuvrata (Partial vow of non-stealing)

4. Brahmacarya-aṇuvrata (Partial vow of chastity/fidelity)

5. Aparigraha-aṇuvrata (Partial vow of limiting possessions)

6. Digvirati-vrata (Vow of geographical limitation of movement)

7. Bhogopabhoga-parimāṇa-vrata (Vow of limiting consumable and reusable objects)

8. Anarthadaṇḍa-virati-vrata (Vow of abstaining from purposeless harmful activities)

9. Sāmāyika-vrata (Vow of periodic equanimity practice)

10. Deśāvakāśika-vrata (Vow of further restricting spatial boundaries)

11. Pauṣadhopavāsa-vrata (Vow of living like an ascetic periodically with fasting)

12. Atithi-saṃvibhāga-vrata (Vow of sharing with ascetic guests)

23. Twenty-Third Category: Five Great Vows of the Ascetic (Sādhu ke Pāñca Mahāvrata)

1. Ahiṃsā-mahāvrata (Great vow of absolute non-violence)

2. Satya-mahāvrata (Great vow of absolute truthfulness)

3. Asteya-mahāvrata (Great vow of absolute non-stealing)

4. Brahmacarya-mahāvrata (Great vow of absolute celibacy)

5. Aparigraha-mahāvrata (Great vow of absolute non-possession)

24. Twenty-Fourth Category: 49 Permutations of Restraint (Bhāṅgā 49)

Formed through Three Modes of Action (Karaṇa) and Three Channels of Activity (Yoga):

• Three Karaṇas: I will not do (karūñ nahīñ), I will not cause to be done (karāūñ nahīñ), I will not approve of doing (anumodūñ nahīñ).

• Three Yogas: Mind (mana), Speech (vacana), Body (kāyā).

Digit 11: 9 Permutations: Digit 11: 9 Permutations (1 Karaṇa × 1 Yoga)

Here the first digit 1 signifies one karaṇa, and the second digit 1 signifies one yoga. That is, through one karaṇa and one yoga, 9 permutations arise, as follows:

(a) 1. I will not do—through mind.

2. I will not do—through speech.

3. I will not do—through body.

(b) 4. I will not cause to be done—through mind.

5. I will not cause to be done—through speech.

6. I will not cause to be done—through body.

(c) 7. I will not approve—through mind.

8. I will not approve—through speech.

9. I will not approve—through body.

Digit 12: 9 Permutations: Digit 12: 9 Permutations (1 Karaṇa × 2 Yogas)

Here the first digit 1 denotes one karaṇa and the second digit 2 denotes two yogas. That is, through one karaṇa and two yogas, 9 permutations arise, as follows:

(a) 1. I will not do—through mind and speech.

2. I will not do—through mind and body.

3. I will not do—through speech and body.

(b) 4. I will not cause to be done—through mind and speech.

5. I will not cause to be done—through mind and body.

6. I will not cause to be done—through speech and body.

(c) 7. I will not approve—through mind and speech.

8. I will not approve—through mind and body.

9. I will not approve—through speech and body.

Digit 13: 3 Permutations: Digit 13: 3 Permutations (1 Karaṇa × 3 Yogas)

Here the first digit 1 denotes one karaṇa and the second digit 3 denotes three yogas. That is, through one karaṇa and three yogas, only 3 permutations arise, as follows:

(a) I will not do—through mind, speech, and body.

(b) I will not cause to be done—through mind, speech, and body.

(c) I will not approve—through mind, speech, and body.

Digit 21: 9 Permutations: Digit 21: 9 Permutations: (2 Karaṇas × 1 Yoga)

Here the first digit 2 denotes two karaṇas and the second digit 1 denotes one yoga. That is, through two karaṇas and one yoga, only 9 permutations arise, as follows:

(a) 1. I will not do, I will not cause to be done—through mind.

2. I will not do, I will not cause to be done—through speech.

3. I will not do, I will not cause to be done—through body

(b) 4. I will not do, I will not approve—through mind.

5. I will not do, I will not approve—through speech.

6. I will not do, I will not approve—through body.

(c) 7. I will not cause to be done, I will not approve—through mind.

8. I will not cause to be done, I will not approve—through speech.

9. I will not cause to be done, I will not approve—through body.

Digit 22: 9 Permutations: Digit 22: 9 Permutations (2 Karaṇas × 2 Yogas)

Here the first digit 2 denotes two karaṇas and the second digit 2 denotes two yogas. That is, through two karaṇas and two yogas, only 9 permutations arise, as follows:

(a) 1. I will not do, I will not cause to be done—through mind and speech.

2. I will not do, I will not cause to be done—through mind and body.

3. I will not do, I will not cause to be done—through speech and body.

(b) 4. I will not do, I will not approve—through mind and speech.

5. I will not do, I will not approve—through mind and body.

6. I will not do, I will not approve—through speech and body.

(c) 7. I will not cause to be done, I will not approve—through mind and speech.

8. I will not cause to be done, I will not approve—through mind and body.

9. I will not cause to be done, I will not approve—through speech and body.

Digit 23: 3 Permutations: Digit 23: 3 Permutations (2 Karaṇas × 3 Yogas)

Here the first digit 2 denotes two karaṇas and the second digit 3 denotes three yogas. That is, through two karaṇas and three yogas, only 3 permutations arise, as follows:

(a) I will not do, I will not cause to be done—through mind, speech, and body.

(b) I will not do, I will not approve—through mind, speech, and body.

(c) I will not cause to be done, I will not approve—through mind, speech, and body.

Digit 31: 3 Permutations: Digit 31: 3 Permutations (3 Karaṇas × 1 Yoga)

Here the first digit 3 denotes three karaṇas and the second digit 1 denotes one yoga. That is, through three karaṇas and one yoga, only 3 permutations arise, as follows:

(a) I will not do, I will not cause to be done, I will not approve—through mind.

(b) I will not do, I will not cause to be done, I will not approve—through speech.

(c) I will not do, I will not cause to be done, I will not approve—through body.

Digit 32: 3 Permutations: Digit 32: 3 Permutations (3 Karaṇas × 2 Yogas)

Here the first digit 3 denotes three karaṇas and the second digit 2 denotes two yogas. That is, through three karaṇas and two yogas, only 3 permutations arise, as follows:

(a) I will not do, I will not cause to be done, I will not approve—through mind and speech.

(b) I will not do, I will not cause to be done, I will not approve—through mind and body.

(c) I will not do, I will not cause to be done, I will not approve—through speech and body.

Digit 33: 1 Permutation: Digit 33: 1 Permutation (3 Karaṇas × 3 Yogas)

Here the first digit 3 denotes three karaṇas and the second digit 3 denotes three yogas. That is, through three karaṇas and three yogas, only one single supreme permutation arises, as follows:

1. I will not do, I will not cause to be done, I will not approve—through mind, through speech, and through body.

25. Twenty-Fifth Category: Five Kinds of Conduct (Cāritra Pāñca)

1. Sāmāyika Cāritra (Conduct of equanimity / initial monastic conduct)

2. Chedopasthāpanīya Cāritra (Conduct of re-initiation into the full vows)

3. Parihāra-viśuddhi Cāritra (Conduct of specialized purification through austere penance)

4. Sūkṣma-samparāya Cāritra (Conduct with only subtle passions remaining)

5. Yathākhyāta Cāritra (Conduct of perfected, passionless equanimity / absolute conduct)

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JAIN VIDYA PART-3

Acharya Mahashraman

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